16. 1 INTRODUCTION

Some details of the Upper and Epi-Paleolithic assemblages from Palmyra Basin have already been described in Fujimoto, 1979a, b, c. In those articles, the traces of wear on the implements of the assemblages were observed and analyzed. A binocular microscope with low magnification was used in those observations and analyses. The observations of the traces of wear were focused on the edge damage and on the striations on the surfaces of the implements, and some interesting features were observed.

In this study, the traces of wear on the implements are observed with a microscope with higher magnification. The implements observed and analyzed in this study are limited to microliths. Some experimentation, but only in small quantity, is also carried out.

The microliths of the Upper and Epi-Paleolithic assemblages from Palmyra Basin are not in good condition for observing traces of wear, since they have undergone much calcareous concretion or weathering on their surfaces. The effects of this concretion or weathering were not so bad during observation with low magnification, but with higher magnification, it became almost impossible to observe the traces of wear. The microliths from Douara Cave were in fairly good condition, but the microliths from Site 50 were in very bad shape. The microliths of the assemblage from Spot A of Site 50 especially had undergone glazing or dissolution, so that it is impossible to find traces of wear with higher magnification. To study comprehensively the functions of microliths of this period, it is necessary to find and to collect microliths with surfaces in good condition.

The methods and the equipment used in this study are as follows:

Microscope: The microscope used in this study is a metallographic microscope of 75-600 magnification with incident light. This metallographic microscope is used to find polish and striations on the microliths. A magnification of ×300 is used for the most part. A binocular microscope of 15-120 magnification is also used to observe edge damage on the microliths. Archeological specimens and experimental specimens are observed in the same manner.

Cleaning: Keeley described the importance, of the cleaning of specimens (1980: 10). In this study, the cleaning of specimens is not as completed as that done by Keeley, but specimens are wiped with alcohl and are immersed in an ultrasonic cleaning tank. Metallizations or any sort of pretreatment of specimens is not employed.

Microphotography: Most microphotos used in this study are taken with a camera attachment fitting both a metallographic microscope and a binocular microscope. Most microphotos are taken on 35 mm roll films. Some microphotos are taken on Polaroid negaposi film. The use of Polaroid nega-posi film is a very convenient means of seeing pictures immediately, but it is expensive, and the equipment for Polaroid film is very large. Microphotos are primarily taken on Kodak Echtachrome 400 and are reverse-printed on black and white paper, in order to see the traces of wear on the slides. The use of high speed film is desirable, to shorten exposure time.

16.2 EXPERIMENTATION

16.2. 1 Method of experimentation

In this study, experimental work is limited to plant materials. Comprehensive experimentations, such as Keeley's experimentations, are not employed. When archeological specimens are observed, clear traces of wear caused by plant materials are noticed. To clarify the character of these traces of wear, further experimentations are planned. The aim of the study has been attained fairly well, but the microliths that had traces of wear from plant materials were very few in number. Most microliths from the Upper and Epi-Paleolithic assemblages in Palmyra Basin had traces of wear that were different from the traces of wear caused by plant materials, so that the functions of most of the microliths of the Upper and Epi-Paleolithic assemblages in Palmyra Basin remain uncertain.

The experimentations conducted in this study are as follows:

Raw material: Nodules of flint from Palmyra Basin are used. They are thougnt to be of the same material as the microliths in this study.

Production of flakes: To produce flakes, direct percussion is employed. My technique of flaking cannot produce bladelets of high quality, but only amorphous flakes. Among these amorphous flakes, flakes with edge lengths of about 3 cm, with edge angles of about 20 degrees, and with straight edges are used in experimentations. The flakes used in the experimentations are selected mainly according to their edge angles and the straightness of their edges. The flakes used in the experimentations have naturally thick backs. The experimentations are carried out by using these thick backs. Microliths with straight edges and with edge angles of about 20 degrees are commonly seen in the assemblages of this study. Retouches are not added on an experimental specimen.

Materials worked: As mentioned before, this experimental work is limited to plant materials. Plant materials used in this work are wheat; Gramineae, such as Setaria viridis, Zoysia japonica, and Phragmites japonica; and soft grass, such as Trifolium repens and Taraxacum offkinale. The Gramineae is cut in dry, fresh condition.

Activity: Reaping and husking are carried out. Two methods of reaping are practiced. One method is to cut grass from the part near the root with the slicing motion of a flake (Fig. 16. 1a). This method can be carried out in either of two ways: A handful of grass is cut at one time, or the grass stems are cut one by one. The result is the same in either case, but in the former, polish and striations develop more rapidly. The second method is to cut ears of grass with the picking motion of a flake (Fig. 16. 1b). This method of cutting ears of grass was generally seen in eastern Asia. This method, too, can be practiced in the two ways mentioned above. With these different methods and ways of using flakes, grass can be reaped fairly well. The method of husking is to hold a bunch of wheat in one hand and move the flake back and forth to scrape the ears of wheat (Fig. 16. 1c). In this experimentation, a flake with a higher angle of about 40-50 degrees is used. Specimens are observed and photographed before use, after 1,000 strokes or 2,000 strokes of use, and in the midst of the experimentations, after 100 strokes, 300 strokes, and 500 strokes of use. Both a metallographic microscope and a binocular microscope are used.

16. 2. 2 Results of the experimentations

Results of the experimentations are as follows:

(1) Wheat: Cutting from the part near the root with the slicing motion of a flake and cutting a handful of stems at one time (Pl. 16. 1: 1-9). To cut a handful of stems with a flake, four or six slicing strokes are needed. When there is a knot in a stem, it is fairly difficult to cut.

At 300 strokes of use, small edge damage is seen on both surfaces of the edge. This is similar to the edge damage on microliths of the Upper and Epi-Paleolithic assemblages in Palmyra Basin. Faint polish appears on both surfaces of an edge. Striations are hardly ever seen. "Sickle gloss" is rarely seen. In the case of cutting fresh Gramineae, sickle gloss is seen on the surface and can even be observed with the naked eye.

At 500 strokes of use, small edge damage is observed fairly well on both surfaces of an edge. Polish is clearly seen on both surfaces of an edge, but only sporadically. Striations are seen within 2 mm of an edge. They are very slight.

At 1,000 strokes of use, small edge damage is seen continuously on both surfaces of an edge. It is seen more continuously on the upper surface in use than on the lower surface. Large edge damage is hardly ever seen. Only one example of large edge damage was seen in three experimental specimens. Such damage is located at the very thin part of an edge, and may be caused accidentally. Striations parallel to an edge are seen within 4 mm of an edge. They are "filled-in" striations (Keeley 1980: 60). "Comet-shaped pits" (Whitthoft 1967: 387, Keeley 1980: 60) become visible, but they are very large pits. Polish that is "a very smooth, highly reflective surface" and is of "a fluid appearance" (Whitthoft 1967: 387, Keeley 1980: 60) is clearly seen within 2 mm of an edge. Between 2 and 4 mm from an edge, polish is seen sporadically. "Sickle gloss" is visible but very slightly. It is not as heavy as in the case of cutting fresh Gramineae.

At 2,000 strokes of use, polish is seen more clearly, but striations are not as clear as those at 1,000 strokes of use. At the spot on an edge where polish is most clearly developed, striations are hardly visible. They may be covered by polish. Comet-shaped pits grow smaller. Sickle gloss is clearly seen. Edge damage is almost the same as at 1,000 strokes of use.

In this method and way of using a flake, the polish, striations, and edge damage are the most clearly observed of any method used in the experimentations. Polish is seen on both surfaces of an edge, and within 4 mm of an edge. Within 2 mm of an edge, especially, polish is most clearly observed. The development of polish is influenced by the microtopography of a flint surface. In the mount or hill of the microtopography of a flint surface, polish is more clearly developed. In the case of cuting with a slicing motion, polish is clearer on the part that is farthest from the hand, because more friction arises there. Polish is most clearly observed at 2,000 strokes of use. As the strokes of use increase, the polish becomes clearer. Striations are seen within 4-5 mm of an edge. In the part nearest an edge or in the mount or hill of the microtopography of a flint surface, striations are more clearly seen at 1,000 strokes of use than at 2,000 strokes of use. Striations spread to the part more distant from an edge as the strokes increase. In the part that is distant from an edge or in the piedmont or the valley of the microtopography of a flint surface, striations become clear at 2,000 strokes of use. In the former part, striations may be covered with the polish that arises after striations. Comet-shaped pits become smaller as strokes of use increase. Edge damage is generally limited to small edge damage. When edges are chipped continuously, their condition hardly changes. This is different from what happens to the polish, striations, and comet-shaped pits.

In cutting wheat stems one by one, the general features of traces of wear are the same as in the case of cutting a handful of wheat stems. But these traces develop very slowly. It is natural for traces of wear to develop slowly, because the friction per stroke is very weak in this case, as compared with cutting a handful of wheat stems at one time. In cutting wheat stems one by one, the polish, striations, and small edge damage are very similar to those seen in cutting a handful of stems at one time. The fact that the traces of wear grow very slowly is the chief difference between the two cases.

(2) Wheat: Cutting ears of wheat with a picking motion and cutting a handful of wheat ears at one time. Generally speaking, cutting wheat with a small flake requires much more force than cutting wheat with a slicing motion. In pre- and protohistoric times in Japan and southeastern China, and in more recent times in southeastern Asia, this type of harvesting was generally practiced. The implements for this kind of harvesting were made of stone or of iron, and they had longer, semiround edges. To cut ears of wheat with a small flake is not efficient, since cutting more than one ear at a time is difficult with a short edge. The results are as follows:

At 500 strokes of use, large edge damage is seen on the lower surface of an edge. Polish is seen only on the upper surface of an edge, but sporadically, and on a very limited part of an edge.

At 1,000 strokes of use, large edge damage is observed on the lower surface of an edge. It is seen intermittently and is concentrated in the part of the edge where friction arises. Striations are hardly visible. Polish is seen only on the upper surface of an edge, within 1 mm of an edge. On the lower surface of an edge, polish is hardly ever observed. Faint sickle gloss is visible, mainly on the lower surface of an edge.

These phenomena may have arisen from this particular method and way of use, in which friction occurs in a very limited part of the edge. Generally speaking, this type of harvesting was not as popular in southwestern Asia as in southeastern Asia. The archeological specimens in this study show little sign of this type of use.

In the case of cutting ears of wheat one by one, similar results are obtained, but the traces of wear develop slowly, as in the case of cutting with a slicing motion.

(3) Wheat-Husking: Husking with a small flake is not as efficient as might be expected. To husk a handful of wheat ears, ten or fifteen motions are needed. Even if a bunch of wheat is turned in the husking, many grains of wheat remain unhulled on the ears.

At 500 back and forth motions of a flake, large edge damage occurs on the near surface of an edge. Polish is not clearly observed.

At 1,000 back and forth motions of a flake, large edge damage arises on both surfaces of an edge. Polish is not clearly seen. Striations are hardly visible. No sign of sickle gloss can be seen with the naked eye.

In this method of use, only large edge damage occurs. Polish, striations, and sickle gloss are not clearly observed. As we have seen, this method is not efficient or practical.

To clarify the character of the striations perpendicular to an edge, further experiments in cutting ears of wheat and husking wheat ears are planned, but these experiments have not yet been successfully carried out.

(4) Gramineae: Cutting from the part near the root with a slicing motion and cutting a bunch of stems at one time (Pl. 16. 1: 10). To cut stems of Gramineae is as easy a task as cutting wheat stems. Cutting fresh Gramineae is particularly easy, since fresh Gramineae stands upright and is not resistant to cutting; whereas most dry Gramineae falls obliquely or sideways and is more difficult to cut. Sickle gloss develops more rapidly and more widely in the cutting of fresh Gramineae than in the cutting of dry Gramineae, but in other respects, the differences between cutting dry and fresh Gramineae can be hardly recognized, and they are therefore described here together.

At 300 strokes of use, small edge damage is clear, but sporadic. Polish develops on the nearest part of the edge. Sickle gloss covers a fairly large part of the surface of a flake. The most rapid and most widespread development of sickle gloss of these experimentation is seen in the cutting of fresh Gramineae.

At 500 strokes of use, small edge damage becomes continuous on both surfaces of an edge. Polish is clearly seen on both surfaces. Striations are sometimes observed in the polish. Sickle gloss becomes clearer.

At 1,000 strokes of use, small edge damage is unchanged. Polish spreads to the distant part of an edge. It is limited to within 4-5 mm of an edge. Near an edge or in the mount or the hill of the microtopography of a flint surface, polish is very bright. Striations are clearly seen on both surfaces of an edge. Very clear sickle gloss is seen.

In cutting Gramineae stems one by one, almost the same features are observed. In this case, traces of wear develop slowly, as was seen in cutting wheat stems one by one. The general features of cutting Gramineae with a slicing motion are the same as those of cutting wheat stems with a slicing motion.

(5) Gramineae: Cutting with a picking motion and cutting a handful of stems at one time. The general features are the same as those seen in cutting ears of wheat with a picking motion. Sickle gloss is seen more clearly than in cutting wheat, but its development is not as rapid nor as widespread as in cutting fresh Gramineae with a slicing motion.

At 500 strokes of use, large edge damage is seen on the lower surface of an edge. Polish is seen on the upper surface of an edge, within 1 mm of an edge.

At 1,000 strokes of use, large edge damage is clearly visible on the lower surface of an edge, but it is very intermittent. Polish is visible on the upper surface of an edge, but it is faint and does not spread. Polish is hardly visible on the lower surface of an edge. Sickle gloss is seen on the upper surface of an edge, especially in the case of fresh Gramineae. Except for sickle gloss, almost the same traces of wear are observed in cutting fresh and dry Gramineae.

In the case of cutting Gramineae stems with a picking motion, one by one, similar traces of wear develop slowly, like those seen in former experiments.

(6) Soft grass, Clover (Trifolium repens), and Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale): Cutting a handful of stems with a slicing motion. It is very easy to cut soft grass with this manner. In fact it is the easiest way that is used in these experiment, and clear traces of wear are seldom observed.

At 500 strokes of use and at 1,000 strokes of use, no clear traces of wear can be observed.

At 2,000 strokes of use, small edge damage is scarcely seen and is not continuous, but very intermittent. Very faint polish is seen sporadically, but it does not have a fluid appearance, and is not a very smooth, highly reflective surface. Striations are scarcely observed. Sickle gloss is hardly visible.

These features are very different from those seen in cutting wheat or Gramineae.

16. 2. 3 Some comments on the experimentations

In these experimentations, the differences between cutting Gramineae and other grass can be clearly observed. In cutting Gramineae, sickle gloss and a special polish are seen in every method of use. These are very special traces of wear, which are not observed in cutting soft grass. Gramineae has something special.

Witthoft has pointed out that corn (sickle) gloss was the result of the spread of plant opal (1967: 385). In recent years, sickle polish has been eagerly studied (Kamminga, 1979; Diamond, 1979; Del Bene, 1979; etc.). In these works, the proposition offered by Witthoft is questioned, but it is agreed that sickle polish is a special polish, which is different from the polish of other materials. Kamminga named this sickle polish "Phytolith Polish" (1979: 144). It waits for future studies to clarify the nature of sickle polish.

It is generally thought that much plant opal is included in Gramineae. These experi mentations also make clear, that sickle polish, sickle gloss, and the filled-in Striations of a flake are related to Gramineae and may result from the plant opal of Gramineae.

When sickle polish, sickle gloss, and filled-in Striations are seen on the stone implements of the site, they show that the reaping of Gramineae was carried on in the site. Generally speaking, the reaping of Gramineae itself is closely related to the grains that were produced by the Gramineae. So, it can be said that sickle gloss, the polish with a fluid appearance and with a very smooth, highly reflective surface, and filled-in Striations on stone implements are proof of the utilizations of grains. In this context, the problem is not whether Gramineae was cultivated or not. Cultivation is a different problem, and to prove the cultivation of Gramineae, a different approach is needed. Traces of wear on stone implements can prove only the utilization of grain.

16. 3 OBSERVATION OF MICROLITHS

16. 3. 1 General remarks

As previously mentioned, the microscopic observations in this study are limited to microliths. Even through microscopic observations with high magnification of the microliths from the Upper and Epi-Paleolithic assemblages in Palmyra Basin, however, it was very difficult to find traces of wear, since the microliths had a great deal of calcareous concretion or weathering on their surfaces. The entire surfaces of the microliths have been observed with a metallographic microscope and their edges observed with a binocular microscope.

The edge damage has been described before by the author (Fujimoto, 1979a, b, c). In these articles, he described the relationship between the edge damage and the Striations and the relationship between the typological differences of the microliths and the traces of wear on them (Fujimoto 1979a: 62; 1979b: 95, 117; 1979c: 134). He made it clear that the microliths with large edge damage have Striations perpendicular to the edges and that the microliths with small edge damage have Striations parallel to the edges, and that the typological differences of the microliths correlate with the differences in the traces of wear on the microliths in the assemblages from Horizon II of Douara Cave and from Spots A, B, C, and F of Site 50, but that such correlations are not seen in the microliths from Spots D and E of Site 50.

In microscopic observations with high magnification, Striations perpendicular, oblique, or parallel to the edges are seen on the microliths with large edge damage, but most Striations are parallel to the edges on the microliths with small edge damage. It can be said therefore that the microliths with small edge damage or the narrow microliths from Horizon II of Douara Cave and from Spot A of Site 50 were moved parallel to the edges during use. In microscopic observations with high magnification, the former conclusion seems to be confirmed.

In the microscopic observations, eight types of Striations are recognized. Except for sickle polish, the author can barely recognize and cannot identify the characters of different polishes, because of lack of experience. Sickle gloss cannot be clearly observed with the naked eye.

The types of Striations seen in microscopic observations are follows:

Type A: These are the Striations that are parallel to edges and are filled-in Striations. Some of them have polish with a highly reflective surface and with a fluid appearance, which is thought to be sickle polish and Striations (Pls. 16. 2-16. 4, 16. 6: 11, 18, 23, 30, 34, 35, 40, 51, 52). These resemble the sickle polish and Striations made in cutting Gramineae during the experimentations.

Type B: These are also Striations parallel to edges, but their sickle polish is not as well developed as that of type A. Some of them are filled-in striations. Although their polish is not as well developed as that of type A, they are thought to be sickle striations (Pls. 16. 2-16. 6: 16, 19, 22, 27, 28, 31, 32, 36, 37, 39, 41, 53, 56, 59, 60). They resemble the striations at the parts distant from the edges in the cutting of Gramineae in the experimentations. Most striations parallel to edges are of type A or type B, but the striations of bladelets with pointed ends from Horizon II of Douara Cave and from Spot C of Site 50 are different from this type. Although they are parallel to edges, their appearance resembles the striations of type E.

The striations of type A and B are not seen on the microliths from Spots B, C, and F of Site 50. The microliths with small edge damage from Horizon II of Douara Cave and from Spots D and E have striations of these types, except for bladelets with pointed ends. All microliths with small edge damage on which the striations can be observed in high magnification from Spot A of Sie 50 have striations of these types. On the microliths with large edge damage from Horizon II of Douara Cave and Spots D and E of Site 50, striations of these types are sometimes observed.

Type C: These are striations that are oblique or perpendicular to edges (Pls. 16.2, 16. 3, 16. 5, 16. 6: 14, 15, 21, 29, 43, 44, 57, 58) .They are small in numbers, as compared with the striations of types A, B, D, and E. Their directions are not unidirectional, but multidirectional. On one microlith, multidirectional striations are seen. The striations of this type are seen on the microliths with large edge damage. Rather severe modifications of the surface topography are seen at the parts where striations are visible. This is one of the distinctive characters of the striations of this type. Some of the microliths have cometshaped pits and filled-in striations. Their appearance resembles fairly closely those with striations of types A and B. From these features, it can be said that at least some of them might have been used in the tasks related to plant materials. The precise ways in which they were used are not certain. Striations of type C are observed on the microliths from Horizon II of Douara Cave and Spots D and E of Site 50, as are the striations of type B.

Type D: These are also striations oblique or perpendicular to edges (Pls. 16. 2-16. 5: 13, 24, 26, 38, 42, 45, 46, 50). They have widths of 200-500 microns. They are unidirectional and straight, and they are very fine striations. The difference between types D and E is in the width of the striations. They are seen on the microliths with large edge damage. Striations of this type are seen on the microliths from Horizon II of Douara Cave and Spots, B, C, and F of Site 50, but they are not as common as the striations of type E.

Type E: These are striations oblique or perpendicular to edges (Pls. 16. 2-16. 5: 12, 17, 25, 33, 47, 48). They are the most common striations on the microliths of this study. They are seen on the microliths from all assemblages. They have widths of 20-30 microns. The striations shown in Pl. 16. 4: 33 are an intermediate type between type D and type E. Striations of this type are seen on the microliths with large edge damage and the microliths with small edge damage from Spot C of Site 50.

Type E': These are striations oblique or parallel to edges (Pl. 16. 3: 25). Their appearance resembles the striations of type E, but their directions are oblique or parallel to edges. They are seen only on bladelets with pointed ends from Horizon II of Douara Cave and Spot C of Site 50.

Type F: These, too, are striations oblique or perpendicular to edges (Pls. 16. 5, 16. 6: 49, 54, 55). They have widths of 10-30 microns. They are long striations, with lengths of 1-3 mm, and are zigzag lines with slight curves. They are very fine lines. Striations of this type are seen only on the microliths from Spots C and D of Site 50. The artifacts from Spots C and D were heavily weathered. Considering this fact, the striations of this type may have been accidentally caused in later times, and may not have been caused by use. It is not certain why the striations of this type are seen only on the microliths from Spots C and D of Site 50.

Type G: These are striations perpendicular to edges (Pl. 16. 2: 20). They are very rare striations. On only four microliths from Stratigraphic Unit A of Horizon II of Douara Cave are striations of this type visible (Fig. 16. 2: 6, 20, 23, 52). They are very broad, deep, and long striations. They are straight lines.

Microscopic observations were made of striations of the eight types mentioned above. Striations of types A and B and some of type C can be related to tasks concerned with plant materials or cutting Gramineae, but what tasks caused the other types remain uncertain.

These observations are recorded in figures, microphotos, and recording cards. Some comments on the figures and photographs are needed for a complete description of the findings:

Explanations of Figures 16. 2-16. 7 and Plates 16.1-16. 6

Explanation of Plate 16. 1 Microphotos of an experimental flake. Details are shown in page 117. Photo 1 An experimental flake, before use. (15 ×) Photo 2 An experimental flake, after 500 strokes of cutting a bunch of stems of wheat with a slicing motion. (15 ×) Photo 3 An experimental flake, after 1,000 strokes of cutting a bunch of stems of wheat with a slicing motion. (15 ×) Photo 4 An experimental flake, after 2,000 strokes of cutting a bunch of stems of wheat with a slicing motion, (15 ×) Photos 5-6 An experimental flake, after 1,000 strokes of cutting a bunch of stems of wheat with a slicing motion. (300 ×) Photos 7-9 An experimental flake, after 2,000 strokes of cutting a bunch of stems of wheat with a slicing motion. (300 ×) (7-8 At 3 mm of an edge.) Photo 10 An exprimental flake, after 1,000 strokes of cutting a bunch of fresh stems of Gramineae with a slicing motion. (300 ×)

Explanation of Plate 16. 2 Microphotos of the microliths from Stratigraphic Unit A of Horizon II of Douara Cave. Details are shown on page 117. (300 ×)

Explanation of Plate 16. 3 Microphotos of the microliths from Stratigraphic Unit A of Horizon II of Douara Cave. Details are shown on page 117. (300 ×)

Explanation of Plate 16. 4 Microphotos of the microliths from Stratigraphic Unit A of Horizon II of Douara Cave. Details are shown on page 117, (300 ×)

Explanation of Plate 16. 5 Microphotos of the microliths from Stratigraphic Unit B of Horizon II of Douara Cave and Spots B, C and F of Site 50. Details are shown on page 117. (300 ×)

Explanation of Plate 16. 6 Microphotos of the microliths from Spots A, D, and E of Site 50. Details are shown on page 117. (300×)

1. Figures 16. 2-16. 7 show the traces of wear on the microliths from the assemblages of Stratigraphic Units A and B of Horizon II of Douara Cave and Spots B, C, D, E, and F of Site 50.
2. The number attached to each microlith corresponds to the number of the Figures in Chapters 10 and 11 of Part II respectively, as follows:
   Figure 16. 2 and the upper part of Figure 16. 3-Figure 10. 1: The microliths from Stratigraphic Unit A of Horizon II of Douara Cave; The lower part of Figure 16. 3-Figure 10. 5: The microliths from Stratigraphic Unit B of Horizon II of Douara Cave; The upper part of Figure 16. 4-Figure 11. 10: The microliths from Spot B of Site 50; The lower part of Figure 16. 4-Figure 11. 18: The microliths from Spot F of Site 50; Figures 16. 5 and 16. 6-Figure 11. 11: The microliths from Spot C of Site 50; The upper part of Figure 16. 7-Figure 11. 15: The microliths from Spot D of Site 50; The lower part of Figure 16. 7-Figure 11. 17: The microliths from Spot E of Site 50.
3. The letters S, L, and B indicate the types of edge damage. S: small edge damage; L: large edge damage; B: broken edge; no sign: edge damage not noticeable.
4. The left and right figures of each microlith show the dorsal and the ventral surfaces of each microlith: left: dorsal surface; right: ventral surface.
5. The small lines in the figures of the microliths indicate the locations and the directions of the striations.
6. Italic numbers in the figures indicate the appropriate parts of Photos 11-60 in Plates 16. 2-16. 6.
7. The long axis of each Photo is roughly parallel to an edge of a microlith, so that the striations parallel to edges are shown parallel to the long axis of the Photo.
8. The width of the long axis of each Photo is 200 microns, except for Photos 1-4.

16. 3. 2 Microscopic observations of the microliths from Horizon II of Douara Cave

The microliths from Horizon II of Douara Cave have calcareous concretions on their surfaces, but they are in good enough conditions for us to find traces of wear with. high magnification. They are in the best condition of any of the microliths in this study.

Striations can be found on every microlith except for one specimen shown in Fig. 16. 3: 26, and the striations found on them can be classified into the types mentioned above, except for two specimens. The microliths from Stratigraphic Unit A have striations of types A, B, C, D, E, E', and G (Figs. 16. 2, 16. 3; Photos 11-40 in Plates 16. 2-16. 4). The microliths from Stratigraphic Unit B have striations of types B, C, D, E, and E' (Fig. 16. 3; Pl. 16. 5: 41-45). A fairly large number of microliths has striations either of two types or of more than two types. For example, the specimen shown in Fig. 16. 2: 20 has striations of types B, C, E, and G, and the specimens shown in Fig. 16. 2: 26 and Fig. 16. 3: 1 have striations of types B, C, and E.

Striations of types A and B represent about 30%; striations of type C about 10%; striations of type D about 10%; striations of type E about 40% (the most abundant); and striations of type E' and type G each represent about 5% of the total.

Striations of type A are seen on 6 specimens, and striations of type B are seen on 32 specimens. About 40% of microliths with striations of type A or B also have striations of type E. Some microliths with striations of type A or B have striations of type C. The microliths with striations of type A or B and with small edge damage have very few striations of other types.

Striations of type C are seen on 14 specimens. Some of them have striations of type A, B, or E, but most of them have no striations of other types.

Striations of type D are seen on 11 specimens. Most of them have striations of type E. Striations of type E are seen on 60 specimens. Some of them have striations of type A, B, C, D, or G. Striations of this type are the most abundant.

Striations of type E' are seen on bladelets with pointed ends and cannot be observed on other types of microliths. They are seen on 8 specimens.

Striations of type G are seen on 4 specimens from Stratigraphic Unit A. All of them also have striations of type E. Striations of type D and type G have a close relationship to the striations of type E and are seen only on the microliths from the assemblages of Geometric Kebaran A.

The microliths with large edge damge have striations of types A, B, C, D, E, and G. Most of them have striations of type E. All of the microliths with large edge damage that have striations of type A or B also have striations of other types. These striations are intermittent and are not as continuous as the striations of type A or B on the microliths with small edge damage. The striations of type A or B on the microliths with large edge damage are unequally seen on both surfaces of the edges and are not concentrated at the near parts of edges.

All the microliths with small edge damage have striations of type A or B equally on both surfaces of the edges, except for bladelets with pointed ends. These striations are concentrated in the near parts of the edges and are continuous. Striations of other types are rarely observed on these microliths. The differences between the striations on the microliths with large edge damage and those on the microliths with small edge damage are very clear.

Most of the trapeze-rectangles and the backed bladelets with widths of more than 5 mm, i.e. the broad type, have striations of types A, B, C, D, E, and G. Striations of type E are dominant. The striations of type A or B generally associate with the striations of other types and are not concentrated but intermittent. The striations on the broad trapeze rectangles and those on broad-backed bladelets resemble each other. Any differences that may exist between them cannot be detected.

Most of the striations on narrow trapeze-rectangles and on narrow-backed bladelets are of type A or B. The striations on finely backed bladelets are also of type A or B. These striations seldom associate with the striations of other types and are concentrated continuously at the near parts of edges.

As previously mentioned, the striations on bladelets with pointed ends are of type E'. They are sometimes associated with striations of type E.

The striations on notched bladelets are seen mainly at the near parts of notches. Most of them are of type E.

The striations on retouched bladelets resemble those on broad trapeze-rectangles and on broad-backed bladelets.

Thus, the striations on the microliths from Horizon II of Douara Cave can be classified into four categories: (1) The striations associated with types A, B, C, D, E, and G, of which striations of type E are dominant. Such striations are seen mainly on broad trapeze rectangles and on broad-backed bladelets with large edge damage, and they are seen intermittently and unequally on both surfaces of edges. (2) Striations of type A or B, without other striations. Striations of this category are seen mainly on narrow trapeze-rectangles and on narrow-backed bladelets, especially on finely backed bladelets. They are seen on microliths with small edge damage, and they are continuous and equal on both surfaces of the edges. (3) Striations of type E', This category of striations is seen only on bladelets with pointed ends. (4) Striations of type E, seen on notched bladelets.

In observing with high magnification, the differences between the striations on microliths can be precisely observed. The striations seen with high magnification are closely related to the edge damage that was seen with low magnification. These features confirm and develop the author's former conclusions (Fujimoto 1979a: 62; 1979b: 95, 117; 1979c: 134).

The traces of wear on the microliths from Horizon II of Douara Cave can be divided into four patterns, and they are closely related in their typological classification, as shown in Table 16. 1.

Table 16. 1. Pattern of Traces of Wear and Typological Classification of the Microliths from Horizon II of Douara Cave

The microliths with the traces of wear of pattern 1 may be multipurpose tools. One of their tasks may have been concerned with cutting plant materials. They may have sometimes been used for such tasks, but their main tasks were not concerned with plant materials and are unknown to us. It is interesting to note that in this pattern, striations of type D are seen, and that striations of type D appeared in the time of Geometric Kebaran A. In the time of Geometric Kebaran A, the traces of wear of pattern 1 are the most dominant, but the tasks performed remain uncertain.

The traces of wear of pattern 2 have many similarities to the traces of wear seen on the experimental specimens used in cutting Gramineae with a slicing motion. Similarities are seen in edge damage, the type of striations, the parts where the striations and sickle polish are visible, and the continuity of the striations. Microliths with the traces of wear of pattern 2 may be used in cutting Gramineae with a slicing motion. Such microliths make up 20% of the total microliths in these assemblages. They are small in numbers, as compared with those of Spots A and D of Site 50. This comparison shows that the tasks concerned with plant materials had decreased in these assemblages.

The microliths with the traces of wear of pattern 3 are bladelets with pointed ends. They were used in moving parallel to the long axis, but their functions have not definitely been determined.

The microliths with the traces of wear of pattern 4 are notched bladelets. The near parts of the notches were mainly used, but their precise functions are not certain.

Although small in numbers, some of the microliths from Horizon II of Douara Cave may have been used in cutting Gramineae with a slicing motion. Because of the features mentioned above it can be said that in the Syrian Desert, the people of Geometric Kebaran A may have used microliths in cutting Gramineae, and may have used grains as one of their foods.

16. 3. 3 Microscopic observations of the microliths from Spots B, C, and F of Site 50

The microliths from Spots B, C, and F of Site 50 have weathering on their surfaces, and, especially on the microliths from Spot C, some very heavy weathering is seen. It is very difficult, therefore, to find traces of wear on them with high magnifiction.

Striations are seen on the microliths in relatively small numbers. Even if striations are found, it is difficult to classify them into types (Figs, 16. 4-16. 6; Pl. 16. 5: 46-50). The classification of the striations is not made with any confidence, and many striations cannot be classified at all.

The striations seen on the microliths from these assemblages are of types D, E, E, and F. Striations of type E are dominant and make up about 60% of the total. Striations of type F represent about 35% and are seen only on the microliths from Spots C and D. Striations of types D and E' are very scarce. Striations of type E' are seen on bladelets with pointed ends from Spot C.

Striations of type F are very questionable striations. They are seen only on the microliths from Spots C and D and are never found on microliths from the other assemblages. As previously mentioned, striations of type F may have been caused accidentallyin later times. If striations of type F are excluded from the total striations, striations of type E are highly dominant, i.e. over 90% of the total striations.

Striations of type A or B are not seen at all on the microliths from these assemblages. Striations parallel to edges are very scarce and are seen only on bladelets with pointed ends. It is a very outstanding aspect of the microliths from these assemblages that striations parallel to edges are so little seen, and also that striations of type C are not seen at all.

On the microliths from these assemblages, then, traces of wear of pattern 1 and pattern 3 do exist, but traces of wear on notched bladelets cannot be clearly detected.

The microliths with small edge damage from these assemblages are very small in numbers, and striations of type A or B are not found on them. Nor are striations of type C found on them. These features show that the microliths from these assemblages were not used in tasks concerning plant materials. Tasks concerned with plant materials are definitely lacking among the tasks of the microliths from. these assemblages.

The assemblages of Horizon II of Douara Cave and those from Spots B, C, and F of Site 50 belong to Geometric Kebaran A. The existence of differences among them has already been discussed (Fujimoto, 1979a, b, c). In microscopic observations with high magnification of these microliths, clear differences are observed. These differences are seen not only in the typology and the functions of the retouched tools but also in their subsistence systems. These features will be described later.

16. 3. 4 Microscopic observations of the microliths from Spot A of Site 50

As mentioned previously, the microliths from Spot A of Site 50 underwent glazing or dissolution, but striations can be found on 21 specimens. These striations are hardly recognizable, and most of them cannot be classified. Therefore, traces of wear on the micro liths from this assemblage are not shown in figures. Clear striations are seen on only two specimens, two narrow-backed bladelets (Pl. 16. 6: 51, 52). Their surfaces are in fairly good condition, and their striations are of type A, with very clear sickle polish. They have small edge damage.

The microliths on which striations can be observed are 16 narrow-backed bladelets and 5 broad-backed bladelets. All of the narrow-backed bladelets on which striations are seen have the striations parallel to edges and small edge damage. All the broad-backed bladelets on which striations are visible have the striations perpendicular to edges and large edge damage. Although the surface condition of the microliths is not good, and the microliths on which striations can be observed are very small in numbers, the relationship between the edge damage and the striations, and the relationship between the traces of wear and the typlogical classifications of the microliths can both be observed in the micro liths of this assemblage.

As seen in the paragraph about Horizon II of Douara Cave, small edge damage has a close relationship to striations of type A or B. In the microliths of this assemblage, this relationship is recognized. So, it can be supposed that the microliths with small edge damage may have striations of type A or B and that they may have been used in tasks concerned with plant materials or, to say still more, in tasks concerned with cutting Gramincae. If this supposition is correct, the microliths from this assemblage may have been used mainly in tasks concerned with cutting Gramineae, and the people who used this assemblage may have used lots of grains as their food, since two-thirds of the microliths from this assemblage have small edge damage. In this assemblage, a typological specialization of the microliths, based on their functions, appears (Fujimoto 1979c: 157), which may show that the systematic utilization of grains began at this time.

16. 3. 5 Microscopic observation of the microliths from Spots D and E of Site 50

The microliths from Spots D and E have heavy weathering on their surfaces. It is difficult to find traces of wear on them, as is true of those from Spot C. The general aspects of observing the microliths from Spots B, C, and F of Site 50 are also applicable to those from these two assemblages. The striations seen on the microliths of Spots D and E are of types B, C, E, and F (Fig. 16. 7; Pl. 16. 6: 53-60). Striations of type F and type B each make up about 30%; striations of type C about 25%; and striations of type E about 15%. As previously mentioned, striations of type F are very questionable striations. If striations of type P are excluded from the total striations, striations of types B and C are highly dominant.

Striations of type B are seen mainly on the microliths with small edge damage. In this case, they are continuous, equal on both surfaces of edges, and concentrated, as seen in pattern 2 of Horizon II of Douara Cave. Striations of type B are sometimes seen on the microliths with large edge damage, associating with striations of type C. In this case, they are intermittent, unequal on both surfaces of edges, and are not concentrated, like pattern 1 of Horizon II of Douara Cave.

Striations of type E are scarce. Most of them do not associate with striations of other types, which is very different from those of Geometric Kebaran A.

Striations of type B have a close relationship to small edge damage in the microliths from these assemblages. As previously mentioned, striations of types B and C are closely related with plant materials, and the microliths of these assemblages are deeply concerned with plant materials. Typological specialization of the microliths, based on their functions, was not present in these assemblages (Fujimoto, 1979b: 117). A close relationship between the traces of wear and the typological classificaton of the microliths has therefore not been observed here. This may be one of the reasons why striations of type C are so aboundant.

The general features of the traces of wear on the microliths of these assemblages have many similarities to those of Spot A, and it can be supposed that much use was made of grains here, too.

16. 3. 6 Some comments on the microscopic observations of archeological specimens

The assemblages of this study were dated as follows: Spots D and E-Atlitian or Levantine Aurignacian C; Spot A-Skiftian or the transient stage between Atlitian or Levantine Aurignacian C and Kebaran; Horizon II of Douara Cave and Spots B, C, and F-Geometric Kebaran A. The assemblages of Douara Cave are earlier than those of Spots, B, C, and F of Site 50 (Fujimoto, 1979c: 156-57).

The striations of type A or B and some of the striations of type C are closely related to the tasks concerned with plant materials. The traces of wear of pattern 2 of Horizon II of Douara Cave may be related to the task of cutting Gramineae or using grains. The striations of types D and E are related to tasks that are not concerned with plant materials. The traces of wear of pattern 1 of Horizon II of Douara Cave, which are representative of the traces of wear on the microliths of Geometric Kebaran A, are multipurpose, but their main tasks are not concerned with plant materials.

Striations of type B and type C are dominant on the microliths of Spots D and E, but typological specialization of the microliths, based on their functions, has not been observed in these assemblages, and the typical traces of wear of pattern 2 were not present. Utilization of plant materials was made in these assemblages, apparently, but the utilization of plant materials was not systematic, but rather primitive.

Striations of type A or B may have been dominant and the typical traces of wear of pattern 2 may indeed have existed on the microliths of Spot A. The typological specialization of the microliths based on their functions began at the stage of Spot A. The total numbers of microliths increased, especially the microliths concerned with plant materials or with cutting Gramineae. Accompanying this change, other types of tools changed, and new types of tools appeared. These features may well show that the systematic utilization of plant materials or grains started and that grains became important as food.

The striations of type A or B and the traces of wear of pattern 2 decreased on the microliths of Horizon II of Douara Cave and striations of type E and the traces of wear of pattern 1 increased remarkably and became dominant. A new type of striation, the stria tions of type D, appeared. Associated with these changes, the tasks of other tools changed. In view of the relationship between the traces of wear and the typological classification of the microliths and the changes in other tools, it would seem that the systematic utilization of plant materials continued, but at a decreasing rate.

Striations of type E are highly dominant on the microliths of Spots B, C, and F. The traces of wear of pattern 1 are dominant, too. The traces of wear on the microliths of Spots B, C, and F completely lack the striations of type A or B, i.e. the striations concerning plant materials. This shows that the utilization of plant materials was abolished at the time of Geometric Kebaran A of Spots B, C, and F.

These changes are seen not only in the traces of wear and the types of microliths but also in the types and the functions of ordinary sized tools (see Fujimoto, 1979c: 157-58). In this earlier description, these changes were recognized, but the reason why these changes arose was not made clear. Now, however, one of the reasons is clear and we see that it is concerned with the relative importance of plant materials or grains.

Through these microscopic observations, it is now clear that utilization of plant materials or grains was made at the time of Atlitian or Levantine Aurignacian C in the Syrian Desert, but that this was not a systematic utilization, and that the systematic utilization of plant materials or grains began at the time of Skiftian or of the transient stage between Atlitian or Levantine Aurignacian C and Kebaran. At the time of Geometric Kebaran A of Horizon II of Douara Cave, however, the systematic utilization of plant materials decreased remarkably, and other means of subsistence became important. The utilization of plant materials was completely abolised by the time of Geometric Kebaran A of Spots B, C, and F of Site 50.

This pattern can be recognized as occurring in the Palmyra Basin in the Syrian Desert. However we cannot generalize and apply it to the whole area of the Levant or to other regions in Western Asia.

16.4 DISCUSSION

As mentioned in the paragraph concerning microscopic observation, the utilization of plant materials or grains was made in the Palmyra Basin at the time of Atlitian or Levantine Aurignacian C, and the systematic utilization of plant materials began at the stage of the forerunner of Kebaran, at the time of Spot A of Site 50. We do not possess assemblages that are datable to Kebaran in the Palmyra Basin. In view of the systematic utilization of plant materials in the assemblage of the forerunner of Kebaran-that of Spot A of Site 50-and in the assemblages of Geometric Kebaran A-those of Horizon II of Douara Cave-it can be supposed that, at the time of Kebaran, systematic utilization of plant materials was carried out and that plant materials were one of the important food sources. The microliths concerned with plant materials were narrow microliths, not only at the time before Kebaran but also at the time after Kebaran. The site where the assemblages of Kebaran were found around the Palmyra Basin, is Rock-shelter III of Jabrud (Rust, 1950: 107-116). In the layers of Kebaran in Rock-shelter III of Jabrud, large numbers of narrow microliths were found. It can be supposed that they, too, may have been used in tasks concerning plant materials.

At the time of Geometric Kebaran A of Horizon II of Douara Cave, the utilization of plant materials decreased remarkably, and the numbers of narrow microliths were re duced. Finally, at the time of Geometric Kebaran A of Spots B, C, and F of Site 50, the utilization of plant materials was definitely abolished, and narrow microliths completely disappeared.

In the Palmyra Basin, the utilization of plant materials diminished remarkably from the terminal Upper Paleolithic or early Epi-Paleolithic to Geometric Kebaran A.

Douara Cave is located about 25 km northeast of Site 50, at the slope of a mountain, Jabal ad Douara, and Site 50 is located at the northern terrace of Lake Sabkha. The surrounding environments of both sites are somewhat different, but the differences between them are not major. Both are situated north of Lake Sabkha and have relatively flat plains, with wadis, in the areas surrounding them. Spots A, B, C, D, E, and F of Site 50 are located in an adjacent area. Douara Cave and Site 50 are therefore situated in similar ecological niches. The differences in the utilization of plant materials are not caused by differences of environment, but may result from differences of time and changes in the paleoclimate. Changes in the utilization of plant materials may well reflect the changes in paleoclimate and not be caused by the preferences of the people. Sakaguchi pointed out that the Palmyra pluvial lake shrank near the time of the Epi-Paleolithic, due to a decrease of precipitation (1978: 25-26).

In the terminal Upper Paleolithic or in the early Epi-Paleolithic, people in the Syrian Desert depended on plant materials for a fairly large amount of their food, but at the time of Geometric Kebaran A, people could not continue their former way of life, because of a shortage of plant materials caused by climatic changes. They had to develop new ways of life. At the time of Geometric Kebaran A, new types of microliths and new types of traces of wear on microliths appeared. They became dominant at the time of Spots B, C, and F of Site 50, late Geometric Kebaran A. Accompanying these changes, the functions of other tools changed, as seen in attribute analyses (Pujimoto 1979c: 135-153). These features seen on the stone tools may reflect changes in the way of life. What was this new way of life? We are not certain.

In Palestine, Bar-Yosef has described how the utilization of plant materials was seen in Kebaran, Geometric Kebaran A, and Natufian (1975: 368-372). He suggests the utilization of plant materials on the basis of the existence of pounding and grinding tools or pestles and mortars in the assemblages. Grains of wheat and barley were found in the Kebaran layer of Nahal Oren (Noy et al., 1973: 92-93). In Palestine, according to Bar-Yosef (1975), these tools concerned with plant materials increased from Kebaran to Natufian, but in the Syrian Desert the tools concerning plant materials decreased from the terminal Upper Paleolithic to Geometric Kebaran A. These differences are caused by environmental differences. In Palestine, most of the sites of Kebaran, Geometric Kebaran, and Natufian are located in the Mediterranean zone. In contrast, the sites in the Syrian Desert are in an arid zone. If a small change of precipitation occurred or if the precipitation became unstable, the effects were more serious in an arid zone than in the Mediterranean zone.

In the Palmyra Basin, paleoenvironmental data to explain these climatic changes in detail are scarce. Sakaguchi (1978: 25-26) and Endo (1978: 79) described how climate became more arid toward the terminal Pleistocene. Some data indicated that the climate in the Levant became more arid toward the terminal Pleistocene. The effects of desiccation may have been even more serious in the Syrian Desert.

The seasonal variability of different ways of life, as pointed out by Vita-Finzi and Higgs (1970: 22-26), must be considered in a discussion of this sort. Available data on paleoenvironmental investigations, on the detailed observations of stone tools, and on the relations between them are not adequate for further discussion. To discuss this subject more precisely, these data must be provided for each microenvironment.

Concerning the features mentioned above, the following suggestions can be made:

In the time of Atlitian or Levantine Aurignacian C, the utilization of plant materials began all around the Levant. Such use may have been related to the appearance of microliths. At this time, microliths began to appear in the Levant, but typological specialization based on their functions was not seen.

During the forerunner of Kebaran and in the time of Kebaran, systematic utilization of plant materials was made to a high degree, and plant materials became an important food source. The narrow microliths may have performed the tasks concerning plant materials. Large numbers of narrow microliths were seen in most of the assemblages of Kebaran in the Levant, especially in the core area (Bar-Yosef 1975: 371), and both pounding and grinding tools were seen. This fact shows that the system of utilizing plant materials was completed in the core area and that even outside the core area, the systematic utilization of plant materials had begun. Plant materials or grains became one of the most important food sources.

During Geometric Kebaran A, the ways of life based on environmental differences in the Levant became more varied. In the Mediterranean zone, the utilization of plant materials continued and became more important, but in the arid zone, the utilization of plant materials decreased remarkably and finally was completely abolished. New ways of life began in the arid zone, with which people could enlarge their living area to places where they could not have lived before. The specialization of tool types and of the tool functions for these new ways of life was seen in the arid zone. These changes may have been caused by climatic changes, such as desiccation. Cultural localization based on the environment began in the time of Geometric Kebaran A.

During Natufian, the general features seen in the time of Geometric Kebaran A continued and advanced, as did an increasing amount of cultural localization, Adaptation to each environment was successfully carried out. The pure Natufian complex is seen only in a restricted area, mainly in the Mediterranean zone and to some degree in the Irano-Turanian zone. Outside of these areas, a Natufianlike cultural complex is seen, but it is not pure Natufian. It may be called Natufianoid culture. In the time of Natufian, different adaptations to each environment could be seen.

The utilization of plant materials and the use of grains as an important food source had long traditions in the Levant and were very different in each region. The ways of cultivating grains and the ways of domesticating animals also varied in each region. It is probable that in the Levant, the domestications of animals was distinct, without any association with the cultivation of grains as was seen in the Neolithic of Capstan Tradition in northern Africa (Roubet 1979: 470). It is also probable that the domestication of animals and the cultivations of grains originated separately.

In the lower Nile Valley, Wendorf and Schild have assumed that grain became an important food source in "late Paleolithic." They so assumed, based on the existence of numerous grindstones and lustrous-edged microlithic flakes (Wendorf and Schild, 1976a, b). They also observed sickle polish on flakes with microscopic observation (Wendorf and Schild, 1976b: 390-391). However, this tradition of grain use may not have continued in the Nilotic Neolithic (Wendorf and Schild 1980, Wendorf, Schild and Close eds. 1980). Along the eastern Mediterranean coast, grain may have become an important food source during an almost similar period.

The ways to food production were not simple, but were complicated in each region.

The ways to food production were not uniform, but were different in each particular region.

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