ABSTRACTS
Introduction
Between Original and Reproduction
ISOGAI Yuki
KONDO Yuki
TERADA Ayumi
YAMAZAKI Wakako
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When we see the history we shall notice the change of the wavering border between the concepts, 'original' and 'reproduction'. We can find 'Mimesis' in ancient Greek or 'Imitatio' in Latin, kinds of 'reproduction', which didn't basically have any negative meaning like the actual concept of 'fake'. The concept of 'fake', which is also kind of 'reproduction', requires the concept of 'originality' and the people who puts positive value on 'originality'. This kind of valuable 'originality' was emerged in Renaissance in which the people started to find the 'original' power to create something in human being. In this period the 'originality' started to be strongly admired and this kind of sense of value had been continued to be domineering over the modern epoque. But very this myth of 'originality' raises problems in art of 20th century. Nowadays technology makes mass production of art possible and in this situation the stability of 'originality' becomes quite doubtful. In this exhibition we would like to show this fuzzy and changeable border between 'original' and 'reproduction' not only in the art field but also in the science field.
Chapter 1: In Aesthetic Virtue
Look at the Evolution of Symbolic Behaviors through Prehistoric and Modern Stone Artifact Copies
NISHIAKI Yoshihiro
This paper discusses a variety of prehistoric and modern copies of stone implements in the evolutional perspective of symbolic behavior. First, the nature of the reproduction system of hand-axes in the Lower Palaeolithic is examined. An analysis with the aid of the theory of social practice concludes that the remarkable stability of lithic manufacturing behavior was a result of the less developed symbolic ability as well as the stronger technological constraint over choice. Second, Upper Palaeolithic copies made by the Neanderthals in the French Chatelperronian industry are evaluated as archaeological expressions of the emergence of a new reproduction system that required a more developed form of symbolic ability. Then its considerable development in the era of anatomically modern humans is highlighted, with reference to the increasing demands of social strategies using stone tools as symbols. Finally, replication studies of lithic artifacts and major fake scandals by the modern prehistoric archaeologists are reviewed. In conclusion this paper emphasizes the copying phenomenon of stone tools as a key research subject to understand the evolution of both symbolic ability and social strategies. It suggests that even the modern replication experiments and hoax cases are reflection of an expanding array of social strategies in the more complex society.
Chapter 1: In Aesthetic Virtue
Genuine and Fake in the Ancient Andean Civilization
ONUKI Yoshio
Recently, thousands of fake potteries of the ancient Andean civilization have been imported to Japan. They were made mainly in Peru, including quite well done imitation as well as nonsensical forgery. The replicas are considered to be useful, sometimes necessary, for museum exhibition or educational activities, but the fakes are despised. Yet, the fakes can also be useful, making us discover or recognize certain characteristics of the genuine objects, left unaware until we saw the fakes. A museum of fakes suggested by Professor Namio Egami, is not a passing fancy but an idea worth considering.
Chapter 1: In Aesthetic Virtue
Analysis of the Archaeological Remains Using the Replica
USHINO Tsuyoshi
The replication method is efficient and useful to analyze archaeological remains. In this method, reproduction of the original form of impressing material is studied. For example, applying a compound of elastic vinyl-silicone over an impressed mark or a pattern left on the surface of archaeological remains such as pottery, the replica of impressing material is made. A benefit of this method is that finely detailed reproduction of an impressing material realizes a completely different approach to the observation, in comparison with the study of an impression itself. Because the impression should be made while the pottery is manufactured, a material of an impression and the pottery are contemporaneous. Thus, there is absolutely no chronological error between the two, as it sometimes occurs when the plant remain was unearthed around the artifact. Therefore, the replication method reveals the season, the environment, and the cultural period in which the pottery was made or even the type of the culture to which the pottery belonged. This method also can be applied to the study of the wear mark on the stone, bone, and shell tools.
Chapter 1: In Aesthetic Virtue
Scientific Analysis of Artifacts
YOSHIDA Kunio
MIYAZAKI Yumiko
ISONO Masaaki
OHARA Keiichi
Radiocarbon dating has demonstrated large force in many fields such as archaeology, anthropology, geochemistry etc. over the last 50 years. Recently, accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) extended an application range, because trace amounts of sample are required for dating in comparison with a conventional decay counting method. A milligram of carbon sample can be measured by AMS method. The result on the shroud of Turin was a public triumph for AMS. It is introduced about analytical processes of dating fine arts and samples of historical age. Referring to the measurement of the Egyptian wooden statue, the method for picking sample for dating, preparative procedure of the measurement sample and calibration of measured radiocarbon age are explained. And, it is clarified that it may be able to more accurately calibrate the age on the sample with large number of annual rings by measuring the material of several points where the annual ring position differs. On the other hand, on the fake using the modern material, the result is more explicitly obtained. The age of art and artifact should be positively decided by dating, while other analysis is also combined.
Chapter 2: In Social System
Photography and the Transcript — In the Case of the Emperor's Appearance and Words
KINOSHITA Naoyuki
In 1872 and 1873, the public portrait photograph of the Meiji Emperor was taken for the first time. At the time the emperor was a young man of around twenty years of age. For the next fifteen years, over 4,000 copies of the portrait photograph were sent to administrative institutions, the army, and schools across the nation. Of these, however, less than 150 were sent to schools. In 1889, in accordance with the promulgation of the Japanese Imperial Constitution, a new imperial public portrait was distributed. The new portrait was issued because it became necessary to disseminate a more appropriate image of the sovereign of a nation that referred to itself as an "empire," one that portrayed a stately, imposing head of state full of dignity. In order to realize this idealization of the sovereign's appearance, it was decided that rather than a photograph the emperor, a painting would be photographically reproduced instead. The Imperial Rescript on Education was issued at around the same period, and transcripts of this text along with the portrait photographs were widely distributed among schools. The photograph, which represented the emperor's appearance, and the transcript, which represented his words, served as substitutes for the sovereign himself. They were handled as ritual objects and contributed to the emperor's deification. Tokyo Imperial University was no exception, and today a gorgeous frame that once contained the emperor's portrait photograph still survives. The photograph was taken out of the frame soon after the end of the war in 1945, when the emperor announced that he was not a divinity.
Chapter 2: In Social System
Whether Art can be Judged or Not — Incident of Model 1,000yen Bill —
NAKAHARA Yusuke
One of Japanese contemporary artists, AKASEGAWA Genpei made Model 1,000yen Bill by hand-drawing and a photomechanical process to display a collage work for an exhibit. This "Model 1,000Yen Bill" was reckoned to be against the law. Akasegawa and the printers were persecuted to the Court, where the artists and art critics gave testimony. This trial had attracted attention of many people. In this article, NAKAHARA, one of the witnesses, discussed the meaning of the incident. The article is reprinted from Magazine Bijutsu Techo No.287 published by Bijutsu Shuppan-sha. in September, 1967.
(This abstract was written by INOUE Yuichi.)
Chapter 2: In Social System
Philately and Forgeries
NAITO Yosuke
From the viewpoint of philately, there are two types of "forgery"; the one is postal forgery, and the other is philatelic one. In the former case, postage stamps are regarded as securities. For example, in Japan, the then stamps of 10sen and 20sen was forged and sold in order to obtain money equivalent to postage by a fraud in 1913. This is one of ordinary crimes by individuals. But, in some case, the postal forgery can be manufactured as a part of national strategy. For example, both the Allies and the Axis forged enemy's stamps to disturb the economy, or propagate their political claims. On the other hand, in the case of "philatelic forgery", postage stamps and its usages are regarded as materials for collectors. In almost all of countries, forgeries of expensive classic stamps are sold for tourist as a souvenir. In this case, the advanced collector can distinguish them from genuine copies easily. But in the market, there are many ingenious forgeries which is serious problem for philatelists. In such cases, forgery of stamp itself is very few except the case of Jean de Speratti or some other "Meisters". Most of forgeries for advanced philatelists are altered material such as forged postmarks on genuine stamps. Thus, the major philatelic groups usually have expertising staff who consults with their members.
Chapter 3: In Fine Arts
Chinese Suiko-den Images Copied By Kuniyoshi
SASAKI Moritoshi
When UTAGAWA Kuniyoshi (b.1797-d.1861 ) depicted Tsuzoku Suiko-den Goketsu Hyakuhachinin no Hitori series (The l08 Heroes of the Popular Suiko-den) published by Kagaya in about 1872 , he referred to Shinpen Suiko-gaden, new illustrated edition of Suiko-den, illustrated by KATSUSHIKA Hokusai etc. Kyosai Gadan by KAWANABE Kyosai (or Gyosai) (b.1834-d.1889) describes that Kuniyoshi copied 108 heroes' figures of Suiko-den pictured by Li Kung-lin (b.1049? -d.1106). The description of figures lets us imagine that Kuniyoshi saw the portraits like Suiko Yoshi (1625- ca.1630) by Chen Hung-shon (b.1598-d.1625). It is important that there are two pictures in Kuniyoshi's series of which iconographic source is Suiko Yoshi. Kuniyoshi is said to have sketched the Gohyakurakan (Five Hundred Arhats) sculptures. Maybe this anecdote means Kuniyoshi's skill of stereography. In the meantime, Kyosai's talk that Kuniyoshi "copied" Ll Kung-lin's picture shows his attitude to study Chinese painting as a model
Chapter 3: In Fine Arts
"Ready-made" from Artworks of Marcel Duchamp
KUMAGAI Kaoru
Ready-made, which is the most outstanding work of Marcel Duchamp, was thought to support the idea of reproductive art. However Duchamp hate the word "copy". In reality, he did not allow reproduction of his art so easily. The aim of this paper is to reveal what the true nature of ready-made and the idea of replicas are in Marcel Duchamp's art world. In order to rethink 'copy' of Duchamp's work, I try to focus on ready-made and study their individual and characteristic details.
Chapter 3: In Fine Arts
Over a Replica
TSUNODA Takuro
Marcel Duchamp is one of the greatest artist in 20th century. ‘The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even’(or The Large Glass) was made by him at 1915-23. In 1980, The Large Glass Tokyo version was born. As Arthuro Schwarz says in ‘The Complete Works of Marcel Duchamp,’Tokyo version is strictly one of replicas. (There are three replicas of The Large Glass all over the world.) But we do call it Tokyo version. Because it has more information than other replica and even more than original. Those who made it studied the original of the Large Glass as archaeology. For example, they interpreted ‘the Green Box’or examined perspective of the Bachelors domain etc. They re-experienced idea, technique and intention of Duchamp. So Tokyo version includes the study of Marcel Duchamp and finally has another natures than the original. In that sense, Tokyo version is also one of the work of art.
Chapter 4: In Educational Use
Musée Imaginaire — The Acceptance of Works of Art by Reproductive Media
TERADA Ayumi
André Malraux's Musée imaginaire is an album of 'reproductions' which we are allowed to open whenever we want to. Musée imaginaire, which consists of reproductions (especially of the photography), has two complementary roles for real museums. One is the immediate confrontation of several works by photographs, the other is the theoretical possibility of collection of the whole works in the world. These two advantages enable us to acquire clear 'artistic knowledge'. In addition, Musée imaginaire produces another form of acceptance of works: contemplation of 'reproductions', for what we can find there is not 'quality as things' of works but their 'significance of styles'; this form of acceptance, Malraux asserted, has brought us more 'intellectualized' experiences of art. Thus, Musee imaginaire has its own significance in our experiences of art and will find new possibilities supported by development of reproductive media.
Chapter 4: In Educational Use
The Formation of the Cast Courts. The Role and the Function of Replicas
KANAZAWA Momoe
The Cast Courts in V&A Museum are the unique collection of replicas, mainly of Mediaeval and Renaissance sculptures. This article intends to introduce the role and the function of the replicas through the ages, by briefly describing how and when the Cast Courts have formed. The first part of the article will be devoted to the history of the collecting replicas, how they began as an education tool for artists and as a valuable substitute of classical statues for aristocrats in seventeenth century, and will also discuss the rise and fall of replicas as the collecting items in the museums in eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In the second and third part of the article, how the cast courts was formed and declined will be described chronologically in connection with the Victorian taste and the changes in their aesthetics. Lastly, the fig leaf on the cast of Michelangelo's David, with interesting history concerning the Queen Victoria, will be discussed as an example of the vagueness of boundary between the originals and the replicas.
Chapter 4: In Educational Use
When Diamond Replicas Emerge
MATSUDA Akira
The production of diamond replicas began in about the 18th century, a period when the flame of enlightenment flared up in Europe. Copying natural stones and owning them as collections embodied the human desire to exploit and control Nature. The diamond, which had long been perceived with fear and mystery, now became an object of human observation, stripped of its "aura", and was at last reproduced by human beings. The older set of diamond replicas kept by the University of Tokyo is considered to have been produced at the end of 19th century, more precisely in the later 1870s in London, while the newer set was made recently in southern Germany. Analysing these replicas leads us ultimately to conceptual arguments: whether a replica can be an original by authenticating itself; whether a replica can be an original by reproducing itself; whether it is valid or necessary to consider the difference between "original and reproduction" of diamond replicas, and so forth.
Chapter 4: In Educational Use
Cast and Painted Copy in French Art in the Nineteenth Century — "Musée des etudes" in Ecole des Beaux-Arts and "Musée des copies" of Charles Blanc —
MIURA Atsushi
Two Study Museums in Paris in the nineteenth century, "Musée des etudes" in Ecole des Beaux-Arts and "Musée des copies" of Charles Blanc, show a historical and essential problem about the Copy in Art History. Founded by Adolphe Thiers in the July Monarchy, "Musée des études" had a collection of European sculptures from Antique to Italian Renaissance in the form of cast, but excluded painted copies according to the principle of the curator Louis Peisse, who thought that the manual reproducibility of paintings in inferior to the exactitude of mechanical means of reproduction of cast. On the contrary, "Musée des copies" of Charles Blanc, supported by Thiers and Jules Simon in the first years of the Third Republic, was constituted of painted copies of the European masterpiece with an educational intention of the founder. This museum provoked a discussion even in the National Assembly, where the project of a museum of photographic reproduction of paintings was proposed instead of anachronic "Musée des copies". In the second half of the nineteenth century, the originality in art was highly evaluated, so the traditional status of painted copies was inevitably dropped down. Thus the difference between cast and painted copy as mean of reproduction effected the destiny of these two museums. Now the fromer survives as Musée des monuments francais in Trocadéro, but not the museum of painted copies, which was replaced by a collection of photographic reproduction such as "Musée imaginaire" of Andre Malraux.
Chapter 5: In Mechanical Extension
Comparison Between Originals and Copies
KOMIYAMA Hiroshi
There are three books that I chose called Ukiyogata Rokumai Byobu, Chikyu Setsuryaku, and Taiseizouho Wayakueijirin, which are printed in metallic type and published in the nineteenth century, and copies of the three books. When the three books and the copies are compared, it shows how long people dedicated their time to make one copy in the nineteenth century. And I found by the comparison that a large amount of endeavor was hidden behind the making copies. It is easy for us today to make copies because our reprinting technique is much advanced than the nineteenth century. However, the three copies show that the same amount or more of time, endeavor, techniques, and expense as the originals were required. Here are some examples to understand how hard to make the copies:
1) Ukiyogata Rokumai Byobu was copied in metallic type in Vienna — The copy is based on a type reprinting technique and Japanese popularity in Europe.
2) Japanese eliminated many words from Chikyu Setsuryaku * in order to copy the books. Japanese had to eliminate any words related about or with Christianity because Japan had a political issue for the foundation of the country and prohibited Christianity at the time. However, the copy could successfully be published under any circumstances.
* Chikyu Setsuryaku was written in Chinese type and published by American missionaries who were in Ningbo.
3) Sastumanian students renewed Taisei Zoho Wayaku Eigirin (renewal English- Japanese dictionary) with their own type — Americanization in Japan, printing development, and a large amount of expense were required to publish the copy.
As a result, it is not east to say that the copies are just copies because people who were involved in the making copies to publishing them dedicated their time, concerned conditions of their countries, developed their printing techniques, and invested a large amount of money in making the copies. Therefore, the copies of the three books are not just copies, but the copies should be valued as the originals.
Chapter 5: In Mechanical Extension
The Geometric Models
IKEUCHI Mito
MASUDA Tomohito
Graduate School of Mathematical Sciences, the University of Tokyo keeps about 200 geometric models of surfaces in geometry and functions. Those models were made in Germany and a part of the collection is now displayed at the School's material room. Most of the models were made by Martin Schlling co. in Germany, probably about one century ago. Now, the same type of geometric models can be found at several places in the world, but the existing number of models is a very few. Mathematicians have desired to see a solid form of the geometric subject which they study. Observing these kinds of three-dimensional models is as important as studying the logic of the math, since both have contributed to the development of mathematics; therefore, it is quite easy to assume the importance of the geometric models for the study. The geometric models are not so-called `conceptualized models' but based on numerical analysis and the fruits of quite exquisite workmanship. This time, to verify the accuracy of the models made about a hundred years ago, we use the technology of three-dimensional digital representation using a 3D laser range sensor (Computer Vision Laboratory, Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo). This kind of digital representation technology is applied to the project reproducing the original form of Kamakura Buddha, at its primal condition. This new digital technology is expected to be a useful tool for preservation, restoration, investigation, and appreciation of important cultural assets from now on.
Chapter 6: In Natural Mode
What is the Tsukuri-mono?
SAJI Yukari
The word Tsukuri-mono is often used as a sham, a fake, or an imitation. But it has many different meanings, such as an artificial product, a crop, a decoration and a stage setting. In short, the word Tsukuri-mono reflects Japanese thought about creation of objects. This word originally meant the setting created as the place where Japanese gods and people interchange in the festival. Tsukuri-mono is made up from three parts of creation of objects; Mitate, Syuko, and Saiku. The word Mitate often implies inspiration. The word Shuko means an idea or a device. The word Saiku means a working or a workmanship. Every word is very important in Japanese culture. Especially the spirit of Mitate is the most important and basic, for it is the first step to image the sanctuary. While the tradition and spirit of Tsukuri-mono is always changing, it is living in our everyday life. The spirit of Tsukuri-mono continues to give Japanese creative world energy and activity.
Chapter 6: In Natural Mode
Mirror Images — Wonder Created by Observers
YUASA Makiko
ISHII Rie
Mirrors reflect such various images as reversed left for right, inverted, multiplied, magnified, compressed, and distorted according to geometric optics. From ancient times, the wonder of mirror images has stimulated people's curiosity. Mirrors have played a key role in the ancient feast, and the art and literature in every age. In this article, investigating the mirrors as tools of self-recognition, mythological metaphor and optical instruments, and tracing how people have speculated on them, we consider the truth and falsity of the mirror images. In fact, the mirror images which reflect the observer's intention are the virtual images which may not exist without the observer. We will thus find the definition of truth and falsity cannot be fixed. We, with the knowledge of optics and cognitive psychology, will recognize that the mirror images continue to charm us and lead us to speculate on them.
Chapter 6: In Natural Mode
Trick of Nature — Mimicry in Insects
In biology, there are two terms "mimicry" and "mimesis". Considering definition and difterence of each, "mimicry" is on the discussion here. In 1862, H.W.Bates published his discovery of phenomena in butterflies known as Batesian mimicry. He advocated the theory of protective resemblance. The significance of Batesian mimicry is that it provided living demonstrations of Darvvin's theory of evolution by natural selection. The second type of mimicry was reported in 1879 by F. Muller, a zoologist working in Brazil. These Batesian mimicry and Mullerian mimicry are major types of mimicry. The discovery of mimicry has been highly evaluated in history of biology. In the 1890's, Professor Mitsukuri of Tokyo Imperial University introduced mimicry to Japan. Recently studied by using genetic methods. J.R.G. Turner (1984) published his opinion concluded that Batesian mimicry is preadaptation and Mullerian mimicry is evolution by jerks. Thus, what has been a natural historical theme for a long time is enhanced as a subject of cladogeny.
Chapter 6: In Natural Mode
Mimicry — Fake in Nature
TAKATSUKI Seiki
INOUE Taisuke
ABE Syuei
TAKADO Takashi
The main theme of the present exhibition is the fake. We introduce fakes in nature, or mimicry. We have many names of plants and animals such as false-mountain-birch or false-blackbacked-beetle. We, Japanese, call a raccoon as a "washing-bear", while a "tanuki", a familiar dog-like mammal of Japan, is called as a raccoon-dog. Like this example, we often put adjectives prior to those we already know. However, even if they look like "models" to us, they are not similar at all in biological sense. Contrary to them, biologically similar plants and animals exist. Bees, for example, sting animals and are dangerous. If an animal were attacked by a bee, it would remember the pain, and would try to avoid when it finds a bee again. The avoidance would be facilitated if the bee looks more impressive. Impressively colored bees would be more frequently avoided, which improve their survival. This repetition would increase the population of such impressive colored bees. Once such a model is established, it is expected that the copy occurs. Horse flies are safe, but birds and mammals respond similarly as they do against bees. Similar copies are found in beetles, moths and other insects. Some of them are not only similar in shape and color but also similar to bees in behavior. These "false-bees" must gain by avoiding predation of birds and mammals. Camouflage is another "false", but this also improves survival by avoiding predation. Some moths can "disappear" by lying over a trunk according to their completely same color and patterns to bark. It is well known those birds belonging to Cuculus lay eggs in the nests of host birds. Their eggs are often smaller than those of the host birds are, and Cuculus birds lay more numbers of eggs. Cuculus birds carefully observe the host birds, and lay their eggs immediately after bearing of the host mother. The chicks hatch earlier, and put off the hosts' eggs. The host parents bring foods even after the chicks become much larger than they do. Both the Papilio polytes polycles and Pachliopta aristolochiae live in Southeastern Asia. The former has white spots, while the latter has red spots, and the latter is poisonous. Interesting thing is that the females of Papilio polytes polycles copy the Pachliopta aristolochiae. Important thing is that only females copy, and the copy-type occupies a part of females. Attacks by birds are lower in the copy-type females. Male butterflies choose noncopy-type females, while females do not choose males. Recently, Pachliopta aristolochiae increased in the southern islands of Japan, which resulted in the increase of copy-type females in the Papilio polytes polycles. This example exemplifies an on-going evolution. Mimicry is found in various mammals, but some of it is found also in plants. Some kinds of orchid have very strange flowers, which mimic bees. Male bees are attracted to the flower and try to copulate, and pollinate. This is an amazing result of evolution. In a sense, flowers are tremendous "advertisement" even though they do not false. We often extend our sense to other things. We have feeling of magnificence against a mountain and anger against a storm. When a child see an animal, e.g., amphibian or a bird, he or she can tell that an eye is for sense of sight and a nose is for sense of smell, and a mouth is for eating. We also feel that mothers are gentle and children are innocent. Most of them are correct, but we should be cautious not to see the reality without care. Old Japanese believed that a bird is religious because it sings "buppoo", which sounds similar meaning of a Buddhism prey. It is apparent this does not male sense in biological sense. However, we often make similar mistakes. In fact, many people think that a sloth is lazy, particularly in Japan because its name was translated as a "lazy mammal". Pigeons are believed as a symbol of peace, but they are truly aggressive, while wolves have a very peaceful society and they rarely kill other individuals, although they were regarded as if they were devils. These kinds of misunderstanding occur frequently. Important thing is that our sense is one particular one among tremendous variety of animals, and that we should notice that there is completely different world for other animals. Mimicry is a result of evolution, and merely an option among uncountable various ways to increase survival and reproductivity, and decrease mortality.
Chapter 6: In Natural Mode
The Digitization as the Economic Ideology
OKAMOCHI Mitsuhiko
Our recognition of the world consist in the media, the digital technology has innovated our sense of virtuality. The information surrounded us is provided through digital process, we have recognize them just the same, even if they are pre-encoded or decoded, but it is organized on the social program. The systems that regulate not only file encoding or decoding, but OS, application, network, device and so on, are programmed in behalf of the economic ideology, require us to simulate on their way. The digital copy can be defined as the copy of the meaning, also have to be defined as the copy of the ideology.
* All abstracts are written by authors.
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