I. The nineteenth century

Our present knowledge of the ostracods of Southeast Asia has relied heavily on the results of the expeditions and voyages sent by western countries. Early expeditions were large-scale projects planned to meet the scientific needs of the times. They sailed around the world to seek unfamiliar fauna which might still exist in unexplored regions. The cruise was characterized by a zigzag track in order to visit places of scientific interest and to provide rest for the crew, but overall, they rectilinearly ran through the oceans and seas of the world. The taxonomic reports were intended to be extensive rather than intensive, and to cover all the taxa collected. Ostracod taxonomy was not an exception.

In December 1841, the United States Exploring Expedition to the Pacific, led by Capt. Charles Wilkes, sailed across the international dateline at the latitude of 15°N. and entered the Sulu Sea via Wake Island in the Pacific and the Philippines. Passing through Balabac Strait and sailing across the South China Sea, the expedition stopped over at Singapore; then, passing through Bangka Strait and Sunda Strait, it left Sumatra around the end of March 1842, sailing across the Indian Ocean toward Cape Town. Among 14 species of ostracods described by Dana (1852, 1853) in the report of this expedition, three species of cypridinids were collected in Sulu Sea. Dana was then a geologist and a scientific observer of the expedition, and his report was the first modern scientific description of living ostracods from the Southeast Asian seas. It would have been impossible to describe color, phosphorescence (Pacific species), etc., if the description had been based exclusively on preserved specimens.

Ostracods from Southeast Asia described in earlier reports (other than the reports of large-scale expeditions) were obtained, in many cases, through donations by amateur and professional naturalists who collected them during their voyages in this area. Baird (1860) described a species from "China Sea" collected by Sir E. Belcher and kept in the Hugh Cuming collection of the British Museum (Lofthouse, 1966). Brady (1866) described two species of cypridinids from Pescadore based on specimens collected by A. Adams, surgeon of the Royal Navy. Several cytheraceans described by Brady (1867-1872) in Folin and Perier's "Les Fonds de la Mer" were obtained from the north coast of Java by Capt. Goujeon's La Prime; from Billiton and Poulo-Condore of the South China Sea by Capt. Depot's Union; and from Malacca Strait by Capt. Bernard's Impératrise-Eugénie around 1866 or so (Percier, 1970). Two species from Palawang described by Claus (1873) were based on specimens acquired through purchase.

The voyage of H. M. S. Challenger around the world from December 1872 to May 1876, led by Sir Wyville Thompson, was the first and the most comprehensive expedition devoted solely to scientific investigation. On August 31, 1874, the Challenger sailed northward and arrived at Hong Kong on November 16, 1874, via Aru and Kai Islands, Ambon, Ternate, Samboanga, Ilo Ilo, and Manila. On January 6, 1875, the expedition left Hong Kong and sailed south toward Humbold Bay of West Irian again via Manila, Cebu, Camiguin Island, and Samboanga. Ostracods were found in collections made in the Philippines and the Indonesian area in bottom mud samples at five stations and in tow net samples at two stations. Thirty species of benthonic podocopids and two species of nektonic myodocopids were described by Brady (1880) from the area under consideration. Among them, seven were proposed as new species. However, later Brady (1880, p. 146) found that specimens which were called by a new name, Cytherideis nana, in earlier pages of his report actually did not carry characters "distinct enough to be made the basis of a new species". In conclusion, the report by Brady (1880) contained the first and by far the most systematic description of cytheraceans as far as the Southeast Asian ostracods were concerned. After the publication of the Challenger report on ostracods, G. S. Brady received from John Murray and G. O. Sars myodocopid specimens found during the examination of other groups of crustaceans collected by the same expedition. Therefore additional descriptions were later made by Brady (1897) to supplement the report. Among the many additional species, one halocyprid was collected in the neighborhood of the Philippine Islands, For further information on Southeast Asian ostracods collected by the Challenger expedition, refer to Benson (1972) and Puri and Hulings (1976).

In 1875, almost contemporaneously but, to be exact, shortly after the Challenger expedition, the German vessel Gazelle sailed northeast through the Indian Ocean, arrived at Kupang, Timor, and then sailed again toward Ambon through the Ombai Strait and obliquely across the Banda Sea. From Ambon, it passed through the Ceram Sea eastwards and out toward the Pacific through Sele Strait at the western tip of the island of New Guinea. Samples were taken at 12 stations within or near the Indonesian seas. Among numerous species described by Egger (1901), based on the specimens collected by the Gazelle expedition, only two species were found at a station lying in the area under discussion.

Around the last decade of the nineteenth century, contributions to the knowledge of Southeast Asian marine ostracods were made exclusively by G. S. Brady and G. W. Müller. Müller (1890) described cypridinid species from Southeast Asia four years prior to the publication of his monumental monograph on ostracods of the Gulf of Naples, The specimens were collected by G. Chierchia during his voyage around the world on the Italian Corvette Cettor Pisani from 1882 to 1885, and were procured for study through A. Dohrn of Naples. Ostracod bioluminescence has long attracted attention of naturalists, and a summary of the subject by Müller (1890) marked the beginning of study of cypridinid physiology. Among many species of Cypridina and Pyrocypris discussed by Müller, P. punctata was obtained from Hong Kong. One cypridinid species from the Bay of Bengal, described by Brady (1898), was provided for study by I. C. Thompson. Among several species described by Brady (1902), seven, collected by different observers, were from Southeast Asia and kept in the Zoological Museum in Copenhagen.

Text-fig. 1. Localities of recent marine Myodocopida from Southeast Asia.

Text-fig. 2. Localities of recent marine Podocopina and Platycopina from Southeast Asia.

II. The first half of the present century

About the beginning of the present century, studies on ostracods from Southeast Asia began to show new tendencies, and the first half of the century may be characterized by the following circumstances:

1. Sampling stations for the study of marine organisms, including ostracods, were intended either to search the deeps or to cover intensively a particular geographic region.
2. Freshwater ostracods became subject to intensive study.
3. Studies on fossil ostracods appeared with the increasing activity of regional geological survey and oil exploration.

1. Marine ostracods

The expedition at the end of the nineteenth century that may be regarded as having contributed much toward the search for deep water planktonic myodocopids was the cruise of the Valdivia. The Valdivia, the German deep sea expedition around the world, came up from the Kerguelen Islands to the Cocos Islands, sailing across 10°S latitude on January 18, 1899; then, passing through the inland sea between Mentawei Islands and the west coast of Sumatra, it arrived at Padang on about January 22, 1899. After sounding Mentawei Graben, so named by this expedition, Valdivia headed north toward the Nicobar Islands, then turned west and sailed toward Colombo, Ceylon, crossing 85°E meridian in the Bay of Bengal on February 11, 1899. Altogether 44 species of pelagic myodocopids were reported from this area by G. W. Müller (1906a). Eighteen of these species were new and were based on syntypes whose type localities include one or more of Valdivia's 32 stations within the area under discussion. Thaumatocypris echinata, type species of genus Thaumatocypris, was described for the first time from a Valdivia station off Padang at a depth of 1100 m, 180 m above the bottom. The interesting taxonomic position of Thaumatocypridacea was not fully clarified until recently when Kornicker and Sohn (1976a, b) published an integrated work on both living and fossil thaumatocyprids.

The Siboga was a forerunner of the new type of expedition, covering intensively the area of Indonesian seas. Shortly after Valdivia left Indonesia for Colombo, Ceylon, the Dutch Siboga expedition directed by Max Weber set out on a voyage around the eastern Indonesian seas, departing from Surabaya on March 7, 1899. After a long cruise to visit Seba, Kuang, Makassar, Batu Pangal, Dongala, Sulu [Jolo], Menado, Talaut Island, Butung Strait, and Kai and Aru Islands, the expedition returned to Surabaya on February 25, 1900. Trawl, dredge, various types of net samplings, and sometimes shore explorations were made at 323 stations, and myodocopid ostracods were found in samples from 38 stations. Among 55 species of myodocopids reported by Müller (1906b) from this area, 18 were described as new species. One podocopid specimen was also illustrated by van den Bold (1974).

The U. S. Fisheries steamer Albatross sailed on a Philippine expedition from October 16, 1907 to May 4, 1910. The cruise covered not only the seas around the Philippine archipelago but also the northern area of the South China Sea, the northern coast of Borneo, and the Indonesian seas around Celebes and Moluccas. Foraminifera from the expedition were described by Cushman (1921). However, the ostracods remain undescribed except for a few genera which were utilized by Sylvester-Bradley and Benson (1971) in their paper on terminology of the surface ornament, and Benson (1972), and Maddocks (1969a) in their revisional works.

The Snellius expedition left Surabaya on July 27, 1929, and after a long cruise of over 34,000 sea miles covering the eastern Indonesian seas, returned to Surabaya on November 15, 1930. The expedition consisted of three cruises. The first cruise, from July 27 to December 29, 1929 systematically covered the Java Sea, Makassar Strait, Celebes Sea, Sulu Sea, Ceram Sea, the area around Kai and Aru Islands, Arafura Sea, Timor Sea, Savu Sea, the area south of Lesser Sunda Islands, and Bali Sea. The second cruise, from January 28 to July 12, 1930, covered the Bali Sea, Flores Sea, Banda Sea, Ceram Sea, Celebes Sea, the northern part of the Molucca Sea and the southern half of the Philippine Trench. The third cruise, from August 13 to November 15, 1930, supplementarily covered the area immediately north of the Lesser Sunda Islands, the northern part of Banda Sea, Ceram Sea, Bulu Sea, Molucca Sea, Halmahera Sea, the area south of Ceram Sea, Weber Deep, Wetar Strait, Ombai Strait, and Savu Sea, Bottom samples were collected at 358 stations, and the nature of the sediments was studied in detail. Unfortunately, however, the ostracod fauna found in the samples seem to have been relatively poor. Kingma (1948), in his study on the younger Cenozoic ostracods of the Malayan region, examined several samples from the eastern part of the Java Sea for comparative purposes, but ostracods were found only in samples from three stations. Eighteen species of podocopids and two species of platycopids, including five new species, were described from the Java Sea. Three of these new species were based on syntypes which contained both the Snellius specimens from the Java Sea and fossil specimens from the Atjeh and Kendeng oil fields, whereas the remaining two new species were based solely on recent specimens collected by the Snellius expedition. Key [Keij] (1953) described 13 species of podocopids and one platycopid species from 28 stations scattered in the eastern Indonesian Seas. Among them, three were described as new species based solely on the Snellius specimens. For additional description on Southeast Asian species collected by the Snellius expedition, refer to Mckenzie and Keij (1977).

Dana II of "the Carlsberg Foundation's Oceanographic Expedition around the world 1928-30", led by Johannes Schmidt, entered the Arafura Sea via Thursday Island from the Torres Strait on March 18, 1929. Sailing by way of Ambon, Menado, Saigon, Bangkok, Shanghai, Keelung, Manila, again Menado, Surabaya, Padang, Cocos Islands, Belawan Deli, and Galathea Bay of the Nicobar Islands, the cruise covered a wide area of the Southeast Asian seas. Temporarily leaving the area under discussion, the cruise continued northward to Shanghai, southward into the Indian Ocean to Cocos Islands, and eastward into the Pacific Ocean, north of the West Irian. Dana II then left Galathea Bay sailing toward Colombo, Ceylon, crossing 90°E meridian in the Bay of Bengal on November 19, 1929. Because the main purpose of this expedition was to investigate pelagic oceanic fauna and to find the spawning grounds of the freshwater eel, the stramin net sampler was in general use throughout the expedtion. Dense samplings were made at approximately 200 stations within the area under discussion, as the Southeast Asian waters are the center of the development of the East Indian freshwater eel. Eighty three species of pelagic myodocopids, including seven new species and one new variety, described thoroughly by Poulsen (1962, 1966, 1969, 1973, 1977), were based on specimens collected in Southeast Asia by the Dana II's 1928-1930 expedition. New genera proposed by Poulsen which are known from Southeast Asia are Amphisiphonostra, Melavargula, Paradoloria, Paravargula, Pterocypridina, Skogsbergia, Euphilomedes, Paraphilomedes, Bruuniella, Heptonema, Parasterope, Synasterope, Microasteropteron, Fellia, Alacia, Boroecia, Gaussicia, Loricoecia, Mollicia, Paramollicia, Platyconchoecia, and Spinoecia.

It is interesting to point out that the descriptions of ostracods collected by the Snellius and Dana II expeditions were actually published 20 years or more after the expeditions returned to their home countries. Thus, the studies on marine ostracods in the second quarter of the present century (before the end of World War II) are represented only by a paper by Monod (1932), who made remarks on two species of cypridinids, already described from Southeast Asian waters by Müller (1906a, b). Specimens of one species were provided for study by A. Krempf of the "Service Océanographique des Pêches de I'lndochine". The scarcity of taxonomic studies on marine ostracods during this period may be explained by the fact that the period of discovery of major new forms was already over. New forms may still exist in the deep sea faunas, among which, however, ostracods are relatively rare.

A new expedition to investigate the deep sea animal life and the physiology of oceanic animals was planned by Danish scientists soon after the completion of Dana II's circumnavigation of the world in the 1930's. Its realization, however, had to wait until the 1950's, some years after World War II came to an end. The Danish Second Galathea Expedition around the world left Copenhagen on October 15, 1950. It left Calcutta on May 1, 1951, headed south, and entered into the area under discussion through the Andaman Sea. Passing through the Strait of Malacca and going round the Malay Peninsula via Singapore, it arrived at Bangkok on June 11, 1951. After returning from Bangkok to Singapore, Galathea sailed across the South China Sea to Manila and across the Philippine archipelago out into the Philippine Trench to look for animal life in the world's greatest depth. It then returned to the Indonesian seas through the Mindanao Sea and sailed farther south to the Java Sea through the Celebes Sea and Makassar Strait. After sailing counter-clockwise around the island of Java via Djakarta and Makassar, the expedition left the Indonesian seas for Port Moresby, Papua, through the Banda Sea and Arafura Sea, passing through the Torres Strait on September 28, 1951. Approximately 200 sampling stations were distributed within the area under discussion. Among numerous cypridinid species described by Poulsen (1962), four species were based, at least in part, on the specimens collected by this expedition. The second Galathea expedition was the last large-scale circumnavigation investigating the deep-water fauna which visited Southeast Asia.

Studies of samples collected by scientists working with animals other than ostracods may produce good reconnaissance results. Van den Bold (1950) received from T. U. Todd of the Shell Carribean Petroleum Company two samples, one from a station off Sarawak and the other from the west coast of Sumatra, and described a new genus Hemikrithe and listed more than 44 species of associated ostracods. Keij (1954) found and described 29 species of ostracods in a sample collected by G. H. R. von Koenigswald in the Bay of Manila. These studies were made by paleontologists interested in recent fauna for comparative purposes.

Text-fig. 3. Localities of freshwater Podocopida from Southeast Asia.

2. Freshwater ostracods

The first freshwater ostracods reported from Southeast Asia were six cyprid species described by Moniez (1891 [1892]) from Singkarah, Sumatra, and Luwu, Celebes. The specimens were collected by Max Weber and his wife during their travels in Sumatra, Java, Celebes, and FIores in 1888. Thirteen cyprid species described by G. O. Sars (1903) were obtained either through rearing in aquaria during the summers of 1889 and 1890 in swamp mud collected by Iversen during his stay in NE Sumatra in 1888, or directly through the Iversen collection. Grochmalicki (1916) described six species of cyprids, including two new species based on specimens collected by Maryan Raci borski during his stay in Java from 1889 to 1900. Eight cyprid species, including four new species, were described by Vávra (1906) from the area under discussion; these specimens were collected by Walter Volz of Bern who traveled in areas around Palem bang, Sumatra; Bandong, Java; and Bangkok, Thailand from 1901 to 1902 and went back to Switzerland via Nagasaki, Japan, and Honolulu, Hawaii. Two new species described by Müller (1906c) were collected in Java by K. Kraepelin in 1904. One cyprid described by Brehm (1923) was sent by T. Ruppeport who collected it in November 1921 in Batavia, A number of entomostraca described by Spandl (1924) contained one cyprid which was collected a long time ago in Borneo and had been kept in the Museum of Natural History in Vienna. Menzel (1923), who was stationed at Buitenzorg, Java, described freshwater species for the first time based on specimens collected by himself. He found Darwinulla in a waterless turf of moss near a hot spring, within reach of the hot water vapor.

The expedition led by August Thienemann investigated inland waters of Java, Sumatra, and Bali in 1928-1929, and contributed a great deal toward understanding of tropical lakes through an integrated physical and biological approach. The motor ship Rames, with scientists of the German Limnological Sunda-Expedition on board, left Hamburg on July 18, 1928, and shortly after leaving Belawan Deli, Sumatra, arrived at Tandjong Priok, the port of Batavia, Java, on September 7, 1928. At first, research on the lakes around Buitenzorg area was undertaken, and then an exploration trip to the Klakah area of east Java and the Sarangan area of central Java was conducted. After the return of the exploration team to Buitenzorg on December 27, 1928, the expedition set out for Sumatra via Merak, Java, and Oosthaven, Sumatra on January 17, 1929. The areas visited by the expedition in Sumatra included Ranau, Singkarak, Danau di Atas, and Toba Lakes. The expedition returned from Sumatra to Buitenzorg on May 15, 1929, via Palembang. On May 29, 1929, it left Buitenzorg again, this time for Bali via Dieng-Plateau in central Java and Surabaya, and arrived at Bali on June 10,1929. After a 43-day stay in Bali, the expedition passed through the Tengger Mountains in east Java and returned to Buitenzorg on June 30, 1929. Finally, on the night of July 31, 1929, the expedition left Batavia on the homeward voyage. Among 32 species of freshwater ostracods which were described by Klie (1932) from the various types of lakes, ponds, springs, brooks, and wells with many kinds of aquatic plants, 13 were found to be new species. A new genus Pseudocypretta was proposed on the basis of a species collected by this expedition. Among 13 new species, nine were represented only by female specimens.

Material collected by Richard Woltereck's expedition to Hawaii, the Philippines, Celebes, Flores, Bali, and Java in 1932 was studied by Tressler (1937). A total of 30 species of ostracods reported from the area under discussion included a new genus Dolerocypria from Taal Lake of Luzon and 14 new cyprid species. Klie (1938) described eight species, including three new species, based on specimens collected by Masuzo Ueno in Formosa in July 1935. There have been virtually no studies on freshwater ostracods from this area during the 40 years since Klie (1938). The only exception was a study by Hartmann (1964), who identified two cyprid species, including one new species collected in Cambodia by J. Blache of Phnom Penh, and three cyprid species from Philippines and Borneo. This gap may have occurred partially because World War II prevented studies in this area, and partially because biologists' interest shifted from taxonomy and systematics to genetics, physiology, and biochemistry. Description and classification of ostracods was regarded as necessary but laborious and rather fruitless work.

3. Fossil ostracods

Studies on the fossil ostracods from Southeast Asia also began during the first quarter of the present century with the increased activity of regional geological surveys, the "Service geologique" of Indochina and the Geological Survey of India. Two species of leperditids from the Gotlandian of Van-yen, north of Hanoi, were collected by Lieutenant Magnin and described by Mansuy (1914, 1919), a geologist of the "Service géologique". Patte (1926) described a number of fossils collected during his geological survey of Paleozoic and Triassic strata distributed in the eastern part of Tonkin. Ostra cods were represented by three Devonian and one Triassic species. Occurrence of the Triassic ostracod Eocypridina? tokinensis (Patte, 1926) is noteworthy because of the paucity of information on Mesozoic and Tertiary cypridinids, which is due to the extremely poor durability of their amorphous calcium carbonate carapace. Cowper Reed (1914, 1929, 1932, 1936) described nine species of Paleozoic ostracods from Burma. Specimens were represented by three Ordovician and three Lower Silurian palaeocopids collected in the Northern Shan States by T. D. La Touche and Coggin Brown of the Geological Survey of India in 1904-1907, two Upper Silurian entomozoaceans collected by Reed during his visit to Burma in 1927, and two Ordovician palaeocopids and one Upper Silurian entomozoacean collected by V. S. Pandhi and Coggin Brown of the Geological Survey of India in 1930-1932. Krishnan (1960) and Pascoe [ed.] (1959) referred to these results in their geologic manual. Psychrospheric ostracods were collected from the Permian of Timor by W. P. de Roever in 1937, long before the specimens were described by Gründel and Kozur (1975).

The first description of Southeast Asian Tertiary ostracods appeared in Fyan (1916). Nine species described were based on specimens collected by G. A. F. Molengraaff and F. A. H. Weckerlin de Marez Oyens from Pliocene clay in the Atamboea area during their expedition to Timor from 1910 to 1912. Studies on fossil ostracods in the second quarter of the present century were directly connected with oil exploration through biostratigraphy. Doeglas (1931) described 16 podocopid species including 14 new species and one new variety. Specimens were collected from the Oligocene to the Upper Miocene of Northeast Borneo by Wolfgang Leupold. LeRoy (1939) gave descriptions of six species of Neogene podocopids, five of which were new species, one of these the type species of a new genus Thalmannia. Specimens were collected by geologists of the Nederlandsche Pacific Petroleum Maatschappij (NPPM) during their survey of the Rokan-Tapanoeli area of central Sumatra from 1937 to 1939. L. W. LeRoy (1940, 1941) also described 14 new species and one new variety of genus Cytherelloidea from Miocene and Pliocene deposits of the Sangkoelirang Bay area of East Borneo, Bantam Residency of West Java, and the Rokan River area of central Sumatra. LeRoy was then a micro paleontologist with the NPPM stationed in Medan, Sumatra. The first extensive study of Cenozoic ostracods from Southeast Asia began just before World War II, when J. Th. Kingma examined ostracods from the Neogene of Western Java. However, "unfortunately the war interrupted work and collection was destroyed" (Kingma, 1948, p. 9). From about the close of 1941, the entire Southeast Asian area was involved in World War II.

Soon after the end of the war, Kingma's work on the Cenozoic ostracods from the Malayan region was published. Material for his study consisted of Miocene and Pliocene samples from the Atjeh area, North Sumatra, collected by S. G. Trooster of the Bataa fische Petroleum Maatschappij (BPM); Miocene to Pleistocene core samples obtained at Bodjonegoro, East Java, by the BPM; Pliocene or Pleistocene surface samples collected in the Southern Kendeng area, East Java, by G. H. R. von Koenigswald and by geologists of the Geological Survey of the Netherland East Indies; and Recent material from the collection of the Snellius expedition. All these materials were collected long before the last war, and had been kept in the micropaleontological collection of the Mineralogical and Geological Institute of the State University of Utrecht since then. Ninety-seven species, including 38 new species described by Kingma (1948), covered 31 genera, including five new genera-Hemicytheridea, Atjehella, Paijenborchella, Tanella, and Javanella. Kingma's illustrations were very simple line drawings, but they clearly expressed the features necessary for identification. The classification placed utmost importance on hingement, reflecting the then current tendency of Cenozoic ostracod classification, and marked a good start in the postwar development of study of fossil ostracods of Southeast Asia. Later, Morkhoven (1963) proposed a new genus Neocytheretta based on a species described by Kingma (1948).

Text-fig. 4. Localities of fossil ostracods from Southeast Asia.

III. The second half of the present century

Southeast Asia became more accessible than it used to be; with the increasing number of ostracod workers after the war, the second half of the present century was a pros perous period in the taxonomic study of Southeast Asian ostracods. At the same time, various aspects of ostracod studies other than taxonomy have also been explored during this period. Previous studies of Southeast Asian ostracods were briefly referred to in studies on biogeographic and depth distribution (Benson, 1964; Puri, 1971) and on interoceanic dispersal of ostracods (Teeter, 1973). Some of the Southeast Asian ostra-cods were selected for detailed study to gain a better understanding of the structure of the ostracod carapace, its function and even its fossilization (Kornicker, 1969; Sylvester-Bradley and Benson, 1971; Benson, 1974; Herrig, 1975). The reason for the selection of Southeast Asian ostracods seems to be that they were the most suitable for study among the specimens available. Studies along this line are no longer in the field of taxonomy, but will surely prove useful in ostracod taxonomy.

During this period, the following social demands underlay the character of biological and paleontological studies and of cruises of research vessels for collection of marine organisms including ostracods:

1. International cooperation in scientific exploration.
2. Biological studies related to commercial fisheries and aquaculture.
3. Paleontological studies related oil and gas exploration.

1. Replacement of the typological concept by the population concept in biology as well as in paleontology.
2. Subsequent change in the understanding of the type method in zoological nomenclature.
3. Infiltration of actualism into paleontology.

The International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE) was sponsored by UNESCO, and the program was undertaken from 1963 to 1965 with the participation of more than 40 vessels from several nations. From March 12 to May 10, 1963, the U. S. research vessel Anton Bruun made cruise 1 in the Bay of Bengal, participating in the IIOE. The track was chosen mainly for the study of oceanography and exploratory fishing. Seventy-two stations covered the area off the west coast of Thailand, Burma, East Pakistan, the east coast of India and near the Andaman Islands. Six species belonging to Ponto-cyprididae were described by Maddocks (1969b) from 12 stations in the area east of 85°E meridian. The Indian vessel Kistna which also joined the IIOE made cruise 19 in the Andaman Sea in August 1964. A new halocyprid ostracod described by George (1977) of the Indian Ocean Biological Center of India was based on a specimen collected in the Malacca Strait during this cruise. A brief survey of the tracks of expeditions made before and after the war and of the studies of ostracods collected by these expeditions shows that extensive collections of samples from Southeast Asia probably still remain unworked in institutions all over the world, if they have not been destroyed. This may be simply because "it has been easier to get money to go out and collect more material than work up collections already in existence" (Sabrosky, 1965, p. 16).

Samples for studies on myodocopids were provided also through applied biological research in commercial fisheries and aquaculture. Net samples were taken by the Chinese research vessel Hae-hsien during the Grey Mullets investigation of the Taiwan Fisheries Research Institute, from December 18 to 26, 1966, at 32 stations covering the eastern half of the Taiwan Strait. Eleven species of myodocopid ostracods were described by Tseng (1968, 1969, 1970), including two new species. An ecological survey concerned mainly with the production of commercially important algae in the Philippines, was jointly conducted by M. S. Doty of the University of Hawaii and the Smith sonian Oceanographic Sorting Center from August 21 to October 20, 1967. Nine species of myodocopid ostracods were distinguished by Kornicker (1970) in samples from five out of 16 stations collected by E. G, Menez. Six new species were described and the status of taxonomy of Philippine Cypridinacea was fully reviewed. Kornicker's conclusions, that myodocopids in the Philippines are highly diverse and relatively unknown and that the absence of members of important cypridacean families is probably the result of insufficient collecting, seems to hold true for Southeast Asian ostracods in general.

In oil and gas exploration, the area of investigation and sampling localities is naturally limited to areas of potential production, which are usually located in or near already producing areas. Off the shores of the Brunei and Sabah oil fields, an extensive collection of bottom samples was made by the Shell Petroleum Company in 1955-1956. The exploration covered an area approximately 80 km in width, extending along the Brunei and Sabah coast, characterized by banks and shoals. Detailed descriptions of Cytherel-loidea and Paijenborchella were made by Keij (1964, 1966) with information on stations (locations, lithology, depth) where the species belonging to the above two genera were found. To investigate Recent sediments and foraminifers, to find exposures of pre Recent rocks, and to chart the shelf-break and submarine valley, H. M. S. Dampier left Labuan, Brunei, for a 16-day cruise of the South China Sea on July 23, 1963, and returned to Labuan on August 8, 1963. Seventy-six core, 45 dredge, and five grab samples were taken at 95 stations. Altogether nine species belonging to genera Paijen borchella, Triebelina, Ornatoleberis, and Saida were described in detail (Keij, 1966, 1974, 1975). Type specimens of two new species were selected from the material collected by this expedition. Depth distribution of species of Cytherelloidea found by this cruise was briefly mentioned in Keij (1964). These recent specimens were supplemented by Neogene specimens collected by the Brunei Shell Petroleum Company.

Eocene to Miocene cytheraceans obtained from the central basin and delta area of Burma during the exploration activities of the Myanma Oil Corporation were described by Gramann (1975). In addition to those fossil materials, recent specimens from the Arakan and Tenasserim coasts were also treated in the same paper for comparative purposes. Twenty-eight species and two subspecies of cytheraceans belonging to 17 genera were described; among the species described, five were new. Gramann, Lain, and Stoppel (1972) described five species of Triassic ostracods from Southern Shan State and Kayah State of Burma; the specimens were collected from the Thigaungdaung limestone by the Myanma Oil mapping team. Four new species of Pleistocene cytheraceans described by Schneider (1971a, b) from the Hanoi depression, west of Haiphong, Vietnam, were based on material from core samples collected by Yu. G. Chel'tsov of the All-Union Geological Prospecting Research Institute in Leningrad in 1965-1966. Herrig (1976, 1977a, b, c) described 25 species of podocopids, including eight new species, from the Plio-Pleistocene of the same general area in Vietnam on the shore of the Gulf of Tonkin. Specimens were placed at his disposal by Nguyen van Ngoc of Hanoi, Vietnam. All of these studies resulted from overseas technical assistance by European countries.

Only recently have scientists from the area under discussion begun to describe fossil ostracods which occur in their own countries. Guha (1968) described one platycopid and 31 podocopid species, including one new species, from the Neogene of Andaman Islands. Specimens were provided by P. K. Chandra and M. R. Ramchandra of the Oil and Natural Gas Commission of India. Ninety-six species of podocopids and platycopids including 59 new species described by Hu and Yang (1975), Hu (1976a, b; 1977a, b), and Hu and Cheng (1977) were all based on specimens collected from the Pliocene and Pleistocene formations around the Chuhuangken oil and gas field, near Miaoli, Taiwan.

Publications of taxonomic descriptions of local fauna in the reports of expeditions, voyages, and explorations were useful for unexplored areas. In fact, in Southeast Asia the inventory-taking of ostracod species is still under way. However, faunistic reports, if not based on careful revisionary work, will often result in unsatisfactory identification of species, which later have to be revised. Thus revisional works on a taxon tend to replace the faunal works in taxonomy. Furthermore, the replacement of the typological concept by the population concept, emphasizing the importance of intraspecific variationas well as interspecific relationships between closely related species in taxonomy, has endorsed and encouraged intensive revisional studies of a taxon. Because this approach requires a large amount of material from a wide geographic area which will preferably cover the entire geographic and stratigraphic range of a taxon, the samples collected by expeditions in the past again become indispensable for taxonomic study, but this time in a quite different manner.

In a study of Pterobairdia inaddocksae, McKenzie and Keij (1977) utilized material from several sources, some of them even photographs, to cover a wide area of species distribution in the Indo-West Pacific. The material included a specimen collected by the Snellius expedition in the Flores Sea and a specimen collected by the Siboga expedition in Sipura Island, south of Sumatra. Examples of genus-by-genus treatment of ostracods are found in papers published by Keij (1964, 1966, 1974, 1975) on Cytherelloidea, Paijenborchella, Triebelina, Ornatoleberis, and Saida, which are dominant or characteristic elements of the ostracod fauna of Southeast Asia. In these studies, the status of study of each genus was reviewed on a world-wide scale. A large number of specimens from all over the world were examined thoroughly by Benson (1972) in his study of a group of cytheraceans which had once been regarded as Bradleya. Among these were Miocene specimens from Sumatra deposited in the U. S. National Museum by L. W. LeRoy and a number of specimens collected by Challenger, Albatross, Oceanog rapher, and other expeditions in the area under discussion. Maddocks (1969a, b), in her revision of recent Bairdiidae and Pontocyprididae, utilized various sources of material from all over the world, including some Southeast Asian material collected by the Albatross in the Gulf of Boni, Celebes, and by the first cruise of the Anton Bruum as part of the HOE around the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. In the Dana-report on myodocopids, Poulsen (1962, 1965, 1969, 1973, 1977) examined not only the specimens of the Dana II expedition, but also a vast number of specimens from all over the world kept in the Zoological Museum of the University of Copenhagen. Many of these speci mens were from Southeast Asia and have been accumulated in the Museum as a result of Th. Mortensen's collection trips around coastal regions of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, during the period from 1900 to 1930, and the Galathea's Danish deep sea expedition. Living and fossil specimens of Thaumatocypridacea examined by Kornicker and Sohn (1976) include a specimen collected by the Dana II expedition and reported by Poulsen (1969) from the Indonesian Sea.

Happily, the age of typological concept in ostracod taxonomy is past, but it left us a number of syntypes, a legacy of the old concept, in which syntypes had been thought to form the basis of species. The syntypes now need to be re-examined in terms of the current concept, in order to stabilize ostracod nomenclature. Six new species described from the area under discussion by Brady (1880) in the Challenger report were actually based on syntypes collected from various stations around the world (Bate, 1963). Benson (1972) found that syntypes of Cythere dictyon Brady, 1880 are actually a mixture of three species of two genera. He designated the lectotype of Cythere dictyon, selecting an Atlantic specimen collected off of Spain, and thus excluded Indonesian specimens of Cythere dictyon. Finally, a new species Bradleya albatrossia Benson, 1972 was proposed to accommodate the western Pacific species found from the China Sea to the Fiji Basin; Brady's Indonesian specimens from Kai Island are here tentatively placed in this new species. Benson (1972) and later Puri and Hulings (1976) selected lectotypes for the remaining five species, in which only two species, Cythere radula and Cythere velivola, have their type localities within Southeast Asia. Information on location of type specimens is reported from time to time in the newsletters for ostracod workers (Lofthouse, 1966; Sohn, 1967; Percier, 1970).

The infiltration of actualism into the field of paleontology gave rise to the idea that no significant boundary exists between the taxonomic studies of living and those of fossil ostracods. This is perhaps one of the most important changes resulting from the diffusion of the population concept in the field of ostracod paleontology in the second half of the present century. Prudent descriptions of ostracod species begin to give necessary details of the appendages as well as the carapace, if the species still lives in the present seas. Attempts have also been made to give all the information on the occurrence of both fossil and living specimens of a species, and at the same time on geographic and strati graphic variations of various characters within a species. However, with rare exceptions none of the taxonomic studies on Southeast Asian species seems to satisfy the current tendency of ostracod taxonomy.